Table 3.
Country-specific associations between timing of food introduction and IA
| U.S. | Finland | Germany | Sweden | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Timing of first food exposure (months) | Developed IA, n (%) | No IA, n (%) | HR (95% CI), P* | Developed IA, n (%) | No IA, n (%) | HR (95% CI), P* | Developed IA, n (%) | No IA, n (%) | HR (95% CI), P* | Developed IA, n (%) | No IA, n (%) | HR (95% CI), P* |
| Any solid food | ||||||||||||
| <4 | 112 (8.7) | 1,169 (91.3) | 1.78 (1.17, 2.69), 0.0066 | 82 (11.6) | 627 (88.4) | 0.67 (0.43, 1.03), 0.070 | 9 (6.3) | 133 (93.7) | 0.68 (0.31, 1.50), 0.340 | 101 (11.2) | 799 (88.8) | 0.75 (0.34, 1.62), 0.460 |
| 4 to <6 | 150 (10.3) | 1,301 (89.7) | 1.97 (1.32, 2.96), 0.001 | 100 (11.8) | 751 (88.2) | 0.64 (0.41, 0.98), 0.039 | 28 (12.4) | 197 (87.6) | 1.07 (0.61, 1.870, 0.813 | 184 (13.2) | 1,210 (86.8) | 0.82 (0.38, 1.76), 0.608 |
| ≥6 | 28 (5.8) | 452 (94.2) | 1 | 26 (19.0) | 111 (81.0) | 1 | 23 (13.9) | 142 (86.1) | 1 | 7 (20.0) | 28 (80.0) | 1 |
| Gluten-containing cereals | ||||||||||||
| <4 | 8 (6.2) | 122 (93.8) | 0.74 (0.36, 1.49), 0.392 | 3 (5.3) | 54 (94.7) | 0.42 (0.13, 1.31), 0.132 | 1 (2.6) | 38 (97.4) | 0.30 (0.04, 2.22), 0.240 | 24 (8.5) | 257 (91.5) | 0.73 (0.46, 1.16), 0.179 |
| 4 to <6 | 47 (8.4) | 512 (91.6) | 0.91 (0.67, 1.25), 0.565 | 71 (13.0) | 477 (87.0) | 1.07 (0.80, 1.42), 0.665 | 6 (6.7) | 83 (93.3) | 0.66 (0.28, 1.54), 0.331 | 198 (13.3) | 1,287 (86.7) | 1.05 (0.80, 1.38), 0.740 |
| ≥6 | 234 (9.6) | 2,204 (90.4) | 1 | 133 (12.5) | 935 (87.5) | 1 | 53 (13.5) | 340 (86.4) | 1 | 69 (12.6) | 480 (87.4) | 1 |
| Missing | 85 | 24 | 11 | 14 | ||||||||
| Nongluten-containing cereals | ||||||||||||
| <4 | 66 (7.7) | 787 (92.3) | 1.19 (0.82, 1.73), 0.363 | 40 (11.9) | 296 (88.1) | 0.86 (0.57, 1.31), 0.486 | 2 (4.3) | 45 (95.7) | 0.47 (0.11, 1.95) 0.298 | 54 (10.7) | 451 (89.3) | 0.89 (0.51, 1.56) 0.690 |
| 4 to <6 | 176 (10.4) | 1,523 (89.6) | 1.55 (1.13, 2.14), 0.007 | 118 (11.6) | 903 (88.4) | 0.78 (0.56, 1.09), 0.149 | 16 (9.4) | 154 (90.6) | 0.75 (0.42, 1.33), 0.323 | 221 13.0) | 1,478 (87.0) | 0.99 (0.59, 1.65), 0.962 |
| ≥6 | 48 (7.3) | 606 (92.7) | 1 | 50 (15.0) | 284 (85.0) | 1 | 42 (13.6) | 268 (86.5) | 1 | 16 (14.2) | 97 (85.8) | 1 |
| Missing | 6 | 6 | 5 | 12 | ||||||||
| Rice | ||||||||||||
| <4 | 61 (7.8) | 720 (92.2) | 1.29 (0.89, 1.87), 0.185 | 1 (2.2) | 44 (97.8) | 0.20 (0.03, 1.40), 0.104 | 1 (2.6) | 37 (97.4) | 0.26 (0.04, 1.90), 0.185 | 23 (9.0) | 233 (91.0) | 0.77 (0.49, 1.21), 0.259 |
| 4 to <6 | 178 (10.7) | 1,480 (89.3) | 1.74 (1.27, 2.38), 0.0005 | 89 (12.3) | 634 (87.7) | 0.97 (0.73, 1.28), 0.815 | 15 (10.3) | 131 (89.7) | 0.86 (0.48, 1.55), 0.614 | 176 (13.1) | 1,164 (86.9) | 1.03 (0.80, 1.33), 0.824 |
| ≥6 | 51 (6.8) | 705 (93.2) | 1 | 117 (13.2) | 772 (86.8) | 1 | 44 (13.2) | 289 (86.8) | 1 | 92 (12.9) | 620 (87.1) | 1 |
| Missing | 17 | 40 | 15 | 21 | ||||||||
| Oat | ||||||||||||
| <4 | 12 (6.9) | 163 (93.1) | 0.82 (0.46, 1.46), 0.494 | 4 (14.8) | 23 (85.2) | 1.31 (0.48, 3.59), 0.596 | 0 | 7 (100.0) | 0 | 20 (8.4) | 218 (91.6) | 0.78 (0.48, 1.28), 0.327 |
| 4 to <6 | 84 (9.0) | 849 (91.0) | 0.96 (0.74, 1.24), 0.736 | 103 (11.4) | 798 (88.6) | 0.89 (0.67, 1.17), 0.402 | 4 (8.5) | 43 (91.5) | 0.87 (0.31, 2.43), 0.988 | 197 (13.3) | 1,286 (86.7) | 1.04 (0.79, 1.35), 0.796 |
| ≥6 | 190 (9.5) | 1,816 (90.5) | 1 | 100 (13.4) | 648 (86.6) | 1 | 55 (12.7) | 378 (87.3) | 1 | 74 (12.6) | 513 (87.4) | 1 |
| Missing | 98 | 21 | 45 | 21 | ||||||||
| Fruits and berries** | ||||||||||||
| <4 | 59 (8.0) | 680 (92.0) | 1.16 (0.84, 1.61), 0.368 | 50 (11.4) | 389 (88.6) | 0.72 (0.48, 1.08), 0.1114 | 4 (5.1) | 75 (94.9) | 0.47 (0.17, 1.33), 0.157 | 40 (8.2) | 446 (91.8) | 0.61 (0.39, 0.95), 0.029 |
| 4 to <6 | 137 (10.5) | 1,161 (89.5) | 1.42 (1.09, 1.85), 0.0087 | 112 (11.4) | 874 (88.6) | 0.70 (0.49, 0.98), 0.040 | 15 (8.3) | 165 (91.7) | 0.64 (0.35, 1.17), 0.147 | 214 (13.4) | 1,387 (86.6) | 0.91 (0.64, 1.29), 0.597 |
| ≥6 | 93 (8.0) | 1,067 (92.0) | 1 | 45 (17.1) | 219 (82.9) | 1 | 41 (15.4) | 225 (84.6) | 1 | 37 15.7) | 198 (84.3) | 1 |
| Missing | 15 | 8 | 7 | 7 | ||||||||
Boldface indicates significance at P < 0.05.
*
Adjusted for first-degree family member with type 1 diabetes status, sex of the child, probiotic exposure during the 1st year of life (52 weeks), and high-risk genotype (HLA DR3/4).
**
Fruits and berries are often served together with baby porridge.