Table 1. Summary of non-invasive management strategies.

No.	Article title	Authors	Journal of publication	Year of publication	Main findings
1.	Effects of Epidural Steroid Injection on Pain Due to Lumbar Spinal Stenosis or Herniated Disks: A Prospective Study [8]	Rivest C, Katz JN, Ferrante FM, Jamison RN	Arthritis and Rheumatology	1998	This study involved 212 patients suffering from either spinal stenosis or disc herniation. All participants were treated with epidural steroid injections for symptomatic relief. Following the intervention, 38% of patients with lumbar stenosis demonstrated a statistically significant improvement in pain scores, whereas 61% of cases of herniated discs had a statistically significant improvement in pain status.
2.	A Comparison Between Two Physical Therapy Treatment Programs for Patients With Lumbar Spinal Stenosis: A Randomized Clinical Trial [9]	Whitman JM, Flynn TW, Childs JD, et al.	Spine	2006	Fifty-eight patients were divided into two groups. Patients of the first group underwent manual physiotherapy and treadmill walking. The other group performed lumbar exercises and treadmill walking. Follow-up sessions were done after six weeks and one year. The researchers concluded that manual physiotherapy, with treadmill walking, resulted in better outcomes when compared to lumbar exercises in terms of improvement in disability and other physiological functions.
3.	Lumbar Interlaminar Epidural Injections in Central Spinal Stenosis: Preliminary Results of a Randomized, Double-Blind, Active Control Trial [10]	Manchikanti L, Cash KA, McManus CD, Damron KS, Pampati V, Falco FJ	Pain Physician	2012	Approximately 120 patients with spinal stenosis were divided into two groups. One group received local anesthetic injection only and the other received local anesthetic + betamethasone. The Oswestry Disability Index was used as a data collection tool. Subsequent data analysis demonstrated that both groups had a marked improvement in pain intensity: The first group had a 70% improvement rate, while the second group experienced a 63% improvement rate.
4.	Fluoroscopic Caudal Epidural Injections With or Without Steroids in Managing Pain of Lumbar Spinal Stenosis One-Year Results of Randomized, Double-Blind, Active-Controlled Trial [11]	Manchikanti L, Cash KA, McManus CD, Pampati V, Fellows B	Journal of Spinal Disorders and Techniques	2012	In this randomized trial, 100 patients were divided into two groups. Group 1 was treated with an epidural injection of 0.5% lidocaine, while patients in group 2 received 9 ml of 0.5% lidocaine mixed with 1 ml of a corticosteroid. Almost 48% of group 1 members and 46% of group 2 members demonstrated statistically significant improvement in pain intensity.
5.	Results of 2-Year Follow-Up of a Randomized, Double-Blind, Controlled Trial of Fluoroscopic Caudal Epidural Injections In Central Spinal Stenosis [12]	Manchikanti L, Cash KA, McManus CD, Pampati V, Fellows B	Pain Physician	2012	This randomized double-blinded study divided 100 patients with spinal stenosis into two groups that both received spinal epidural injections. The first group only received local anesthetic, while the second group received both local anesthetic and corticosteroid. Improvement of pain and functionality was observed in both groups (38% vs. 44%, respectively).
6.	A Randomized, Double-blind Controlled Trial of Lumbar Interlaminar Epidural Injections in Central Spinal Stenosis: 2-year Follow-up [13]	Manchikanti L, Cash KA, McManus CD, Damron KS, Pampati V, Falco FJ	International Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation Journal	2014	This randomized trial divided 120 patients into two groups. Group 1 was treated with lumbar epidural lidocaine (0.5%) 6 ml, and group 2 received 1 ml steroid preparation mixed with 5 ml lidocaine. The Numerical Pain Rating Scale and Oswestry Disability Index were used to assess patient status. At two years' follow-up, both groups demonstrated no significant difference with respect to improvement rates (group 1 had 72% and group 2 had 73% pain relief).
7.	Pregabalin for Refractory Radicular Leg Pain due to Lumbar Spinal Stenosis: A Preliminary Prospective Study [14]	Orita S, Yamashita M, Eguchi Y, et al.	Pain Research and Management	2016	Researchers tested the efficacy of pregabalin in pain management in 104 cases of lumbar stenosis. Every patient in this study demonstrated symptoms of neurogenic claudication refractory to nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Statistically significant improvement in terms of pain control and gait disturbance was observed; however, dizziness was an associated complication of therapeutic intervention.