Table 3.

Studies measuring rate of change

Study	Total N (Females)	Mean age ± SD (range)	SES measure	Number of imaging time points	Imaging measure	Key Findings	Faster/Slower/Different
Barch et al. (2020) [70]	167 (48.5%F)	15.83 ± 1.11 (13-19)	Income-to-needs ratio (family income/federal poverty level based on family size)	3	Volume	Greater T1 poverty was associated with a shallower hippocampal slope	Slower
Barch et al. (2022) [72]	210 (50%F)	3-6 years at T1 and 15-21 at T5	Income-to-needs	5	Volume	High INR was associated with faster subcortical volume growth and faster cortical volume growth (of a few regions)	Slower
Ellwood-Lowe et al. (2018) [71]	116 (100% F)	14.82 ± 3.09 (10-23). Time between first and last scans - 4.61 ± 2.15	Family income and parental education	4	Volume	Hippocampal volume in girls from lower-income homes exhibited a modest decline during the teenage years, then an increase through to early adulthood. In contrast, hippocampal volume of high-income females peaked around the age of 19, and then started to decline.	Different (non-linear), high-income girls appear to reach a higher and earlier peak
Hair et al. (2015) [73]	389 (52.5% F)	11.1 (4-20) (first scan; follow-up period 24 months)	Household income	3	Volume	Low-income children exhibited maturational lag in total gray matter and the frontal lobe, temporal lobe, and hippocampus.	Slower
Hanson et al. (2013) [31]	77 (40%F)	13.5 ± 7.9 months at first scan, average time between scans = 6.5 ± 4.1 months	Average household income across time-points	3	Volume	Low SES was associated with a slower growth trajectory of development for total gray matter volume and volume of the frontal and parietal lobe	Slower
Judd et al. (2020) [78]	551 (58%F)	T1: 14.44 ± 0.38 T2: 19.01 ± 0.7	Composite SES: sum of mother’s education score, father’s education score, family stress unemployment score, financial difficulties score, home inadequacy score, neighborhood score, financial crisis score, mother employed score, and father employed score	2	Surface area, thickness, subcortical volume	Greater decreases in surface area in low-SES individuals (NS for thickness and subcortical volume)	Faster
Kalantar-Hormozi et al. (2023) [76]	183 (42%F)	Three repeated scans per subject, approximate interval 2.8 years; mean age: 11.2 ± 2.7, range 5-24.2	Hollingshead two-factor index	3	Covariation across multiple cortical features (cortical thickness, surface area, local gyrification index, and mean curvature)	Higher SES was associated with accelerated cortical thinning and area reduction	Slower
King et al. (2020) [77]	147 (57%F)	T1: 11 ± 1 (9-13) T2: 13 ± 1 (12-17)	Income-to-needs	2	Volume	Higher INR was associated with less expansion, or greater contraction, in the right hippocampal cingulum in boys, but was weakly associated with greater volume expansion in girls Higher INR was associated with greater volume expansion in the left inferior temporal gyrus, bilateral lingual gyrus and in the right superior parietal lobule and less volume expansion (or more contraction) in an area of the bilateral superior frontal gyrus in boys	Mixed and sex-dependent
McDermott et al. (2019) [59]	623 (48%F)	12 ±4 (5-25)	Hollingshead two-factor index	Long (344 individuals had > 1 scan)	Volume	High SES was associated with greater increases in hippocampal volume	Slower
Rakesh et al. (2021) [22]	166 (52%F)	T1: 12.79 ± 0.43 T2: 16.7 ± 0.52 T3: 19.08 ± 0.46	Neighborhood disadvantage	3	Brain-predicted-age (based on surface area, thickness, and volume)	Low SES was associated with a negative brain-predicted-age trajectory (i.e., greater brain-predicted-age at earlier ages but not at later ages)	Slower trajectory
Whittle et al. (2017) [74]	166 (52%F)	T1: 12.79 ± 0.43 T2: 16.7 ± 0.52 T3: 19.08 ± 0.46	Neighborhood disadvantage	3	Thickness and volume	Low SES was associated with less thinning (more thickening), greater increases in amygdala volume	Slower for cortical thickness, faster for amygdala in boys

Abbreviations: INR = income-to-needs ratio, SES = socioeconomic status