Table 4.

The advantages and limitations of each method of incorporation of essential oils in a biopolymer matrix.

Method	Direct Incorporation	Emulsification	Liposomes Formation
The main characteristics of method	Using low energy if biopolymers possess hydrophobic character [63,64,65,66]; using a high-sheared homogenizer for hydrocolloids [67,68,69,70,71]	Using high-speed stirring and emulsifying agent intended for the formation of oil in water emulsion [73,74,75,76,77,78,79,80,81,82]	Dissolution of phospholipids and EOs in an organic solvent to create a lipid solution; evaporation of solvent and formation of a lipid dispersion in distilled water; size adjustment by ultrasonication.
Advantages	Shorter time for the preparation of active packaging; no additional steps –simpler procedure; can be more cost-effective	Stabilization and protection of EOs; improve their solubility in aqueous environments, provide their uniform distribution and controlled release. Nanoemulsions ensure better bioavailability of antimicrobial compounds and improved optical properties of packaging. In comparison to emulsions, nanoemulsions provide better stability to environmental conditions such as pH, temperature, and shear forces.	Targeted delivery and improved bioavailability, along with protection of ingredients and reduced undesirable reactions.
Limitations	Possible accumulation of essential oil on the surface of the film; deterioration of EO properties (oxidation, thermal degradation);	Specialized equipment and careful formulation to obtain stable formulation; Use of synthetic surfactants that can be irritable.	Complex production, difficulties in achieving consistent and desired liposome sizes, as well as the potential impact on texture, appearance, and flavor of food.
Method	Biopolymer–Based Nanostructures	Cyclodextrins	Nanoclays
The main characteristics of method	-Spray-drying by dispersing of EO in an aqueous solution of biopolymer obtain emulsion, which is pulled into the dryer through a nozzle giving small droplets (nanoparticles); -Complex coacervation when two oppositely charged biopolymers make an electrostatic complex (nanoparticles); -Electrospinning–formation of EO emulsion in aqueous biopolymer solution and fibers are formation of the fibers under an electrical field, passing through the syringe; -Covalently or self-assembly cross-linking of hydrophilic monomers or polymers (nanogels).	Mixing of EO and cyclodextrins in distilled water, stirring, filtration, and drying.	Preparation of EO and nano clay solution in an appropriate solvent. Mixing the solutions and stirring
Advantages	-Controlled release of active compounds, enhanced stability of essential oils, improved mechanical properties and durability (nanoparticles); -Can provide excellent barrier properties against gases and liquids; can be engineered to meet special requirements to gradually release antimicrobial compounds; can be transparent, which is important for packaging with special optical demands (nanofibers); -Can help maintain moisture levels in packaged foods, preventing dehydration and preserving freshness, and can improve barrier properties of packaging against oxygen and contaminants ensuring the controlled release of antimicrobial compounds over time (nanogels).	Odor and flavor control; help to maintain the sensory quality of the packaged food; they ensure protection of Eos’ degradation and their slow release over time.	Improvement of mechanical and barrier properties of packaging material.
Limitations	-Difficulties in achieving of uniform distribution, high cost of manufacturing, and incorporation into the packaging (nanoparticles); -Challenging scalability, commercialization, poor mechanical properties, and the high cost of their production (nanofibers); -Low level of compatibility between gels and matrix which may require some adaptations (nanogels).	High price and limited solubility in water.	Can cause reduced transparency and migration into packaged food.