Table 2.

Summary of recent research work involving natural materials for VTE.

Biomaterial	Study	Outline	Year	Refs.
Collagen	In vitro	A trilayered cellularized physiological-like TEVG produced by molding and dynamic maturation, showing native vessel-like mechanical properties.	2022	[107]
	In vitro	Bilayered and cellularized TEVGs made using coaxial extrusion, with high collagen concentrations for increased mechanical properties.	2022	[108]
	In vitro	A highly tailorable densified collagen construct with enhanced stability and mechanical properties and possibility of cellularization.	2023	[109]
	In vitro	Electrospun PCL/collagen/heparin TEVGs with ameliorated flexibility and bursting strength compared to native vessels.	2022	[110]
	In vitro/in vivo	Enzyme-laden hyaluronic acid/collagen/PCL electrospun scaffold favoring endothelialization and antithrombogenicity.	2022	[111]
Gelatin	In vitro	3D-printed GelMa constructs stabilized by dual cross-linking showing enhanced mechanical properties and endothelialization.	2021	[113]
	None	A novel additive lathe printing method to achieve highly tunable GelMA tubular structures for VTE.	2023	[114]
	In vitro/in vivo	Electrospun gelatin cross-linked with oxidized carboxymethyl cellulose showing excellent biocompatibility both in vitro and in vivo.	2017	[115]
	In vitro	Gelatin was electrospun with PCL and PGE to increase mechanical properties and tailor ultrastructure, achieving cell adhesion and migration in the scaffold and edothelialization.	2017	[116]
	In vitro	Electrospun PCL, PGLA, and gelatin with controlled fiber orientation showing increased guidance for cell orientation and appropriate mechanical properties.	2020	[117]
Fibrin	In vitro/in vivo	Electrospun PU/fibrin small-caliber TEVGs showed optima biocompatibility and mechanical properties, with graft patency and thrombosis risk reduction achieved up to 3 months after implantation.	2020	[120]
	In vitro/in vivo	Electrospun PCL/fibrin grafts with increased mechanical properties demonstrated good hemocompatibility and biocompatibility.	2020	[121]
	In vivo	Electrospun PCL/fibrin small-caliber grafts studied in vivo up to 9 months, showed ability to induce neoartery regeneration.	2021	[122]
	In vitro/in vivo	Fibrin graft embedded with heparin for decreased thrombogenicity and showed stability after up to 12 months of storage.	2022	[123]
	In vitro/in vivo	Fibrin-based decellularized TEVG from ovine fibroblasts showed graft recellularization and good patency up to 6 months after implantation in ovine model.	2014	[124]
	In vitro/in vivo	Fibrin-based decellularized TEVG from human fibroblasts demonstrated no immune reactions, graft recellularization, and stability up to 6 months after implantation in baboon model.	2017	[125]
Elastin	In vitro	Self-assembling functionalized elastin scaffold able to limit platelet adhesion and activation, promote endhotelialization, and induce SMCs’ contractile phenotype.	2023	[129]
	In vitro	A multilayered elastin/collagen graft with highly controlled ultrastructure, showing good SMC biocompatibility and low immunogenicity.	2020	[130]
	In vitro	Molded cellularized collagen grafts with functionalized ELR addition demonstrated improved elastic-mechanical properties and cell functionality.	2020	[131]
	In vitro/in vivo	The addition of elastin to the silk fibroin scaffolds improved mechanical properties and cell adhesion, maintaining patency and bioactivity after implantation.	2021	[132]
	In vitro/in vivo	Tropoelastin lamellae embedded in PSG electrospun scaffolds led to formation of neoartery 8 months after in vivo implantation.	2022	[133]
Silk	In vivo	Tunable gel spun silk TEVGs with high porosities showed improved mechanical properties and good cellularization after in vivo implantation.	2020	[136]
	In vivo	Small-diameter braided silk fibroin grafts were used to understand graft remodeling after implantation, showing excellent biocompatibility and long-term spotipatency.	2020	[137]
	In vitro	Physico-chemical characterization of 3 different silk biomaterials was performed, all showing good biocompatibility for VTE applications.	2023	[138]
	In vitro	Cellularized silk electrospun grafts with dynamic stimulation for physiological-like EC monolayer.	2022	[83]
	In vitro/in vivo	Methacrylated silk and GelMa hydrogels showing enhanced mechanical properties, biocompatibility, and angiogenic potential both in vitro and in vivo.	2023	[139]
	In vitro	Bilayered electrospun chitosan and PCL grafts with antithrombogenic and antibacterial properties; in addition, demonstrated rapid endothelialization.	2019	[142]
Chitosan	In vitro	Chitosan-rich collagen/PLLA TEVGs showed improved hemocompatibility and biocompatibility.	2018	[143]
	In vitro/in vivo	Evaluation of chitosan/PLCL vascular grafts in large animal model demonstrated stability and biocompatibility up to 24 weeks.	2020	[144]
Decellularized extracellular matrix	In vitro	A bioink made of dECM and ECs derived from the same vein sample, supplemented with mesenchymal stem cells showing ability to induce cell differentiation.	2022	[148]
	In vitro/in vivo	dECM and alginate bioink, cellularized with endothelial progenitor cells, showing bioactivity and therapeutic potential for ischemic disease.	2017	[149]
	In vitro/in vivo	Electrospun dECM and PLCL loaded with salidroside demonstrated bioactivity with good endothelialization and ECM deposition in vitro and in vivo.	2023	[150]
	In vitro/in vivo	dECM scaffold modified with PEG, heparin, and chitosan showed appropriate mechanical properties and long-term patency in large in vivo model.	2022	[151]