Table 4.
Associations With Total Healthcare Costs Based on Generalized Linear Models
| Patient characteristics | Generalized linear model |
|||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Multi-variate univariable |
Multi-variate multivariable |
|||||||||
| Exp[β] | 95% CI | p value | Exp[β] | 95% CI | p value | |||||
| Sex | ||||||||||
| Male | (ref) | (ref) | ||||||||
| Female | 0.72 | 0.66 | - | 0.78 | <0.001 | 0.80 | 0.75 | - | 0.85 | <0.001 |
| Age | ||||||||||
| 16-25 years | (ref) | (ref) | ||||||||
| 26-40 years | 1.04 | 0.91 | - | 1.19 | 0.547 | 1.13 | 1.02 | - | 1.24 | 0.015 |
| 41-64 years | 1.03 | 0.92 | - | 1.16 | 0.580 | 1.04 | 0.96 | - | 1.14 | 0.353 |
| ≥65 years | 0.89 | 0.79 | - | 1.01 | 0.074 | 1.13 | 1.01 | - | 1.25 | 0.026 |
| Medical history | ||||||||||
| Healthy patient | (ref) | (ref) | ||||||||
| Mild systemic disease | 0.97 | 0.89 | - | 1.07 | 0.572 | 1.06 | 0.99 | - | 1.14 | 0.105 |
| Severe systemic disease | 1.09 | 0.96 | - | 1.25 | 0.198 | 1.28 | 1.15 | - | 1.42 | <0.001 |
| Cause of injury | ||||||||||
| Road traffic accident | (ref) | (ref) | ||||||||
| Fall | 0.76 | 0.70 | - | 0.83 | <0.001 | 0.84 | 0.78 | - | 0.89 | <0.001 |
| Violence | 0.73 | 0.63 | - | 0.85 | <0.001 | 0.94 | 0.85 | - | 1.05 | 0.291 |
| Self-harm | 0.67 | 0.56 | - | 0.80 | <0.001 | 0.75 | 0.66 | - | 0.85 | <0.001 |
| Other | 1.83 | 1.26 | - | 2.68 | 0.002 | 1.09 | 0.83 | - | 1.43 | 0.536 |
| TBI severity | ||||||||||
| Mild | (ref) | (ref) | ||||||||
| Moderate | 3.52 | 3.10 | - | 3.99 | <0.001 | 1.46 | 1.31 | - | 1.63 | <0.001 |
| Severe | 4.88 | 4.48 | - | 5.32 | <0.001 | 1.67 | 1.52 | - | 1.84 | <0.001 |
| Brain AIS | ||||||||||
| Minor | (ref) | (ref) | ||||||||
| Moderate | 1.80 | 1.60 | - | 2.03 | <0.001 | 1.30 | 1.17 | - | 1.44 | <0.001 |
| Serious | 2.84 | 2.58 | - | 3.13 | <0.001 | 1.61 | 1.46 | - | 1.77 | <0.001 |
| Severe | 9.79 | 8.77 | - | 10.93 | <0.001 | 2.75 | 2.43 | - | 3.13 | <0.001 |
| Critical | 17.70 | 15.99 | - | 19.59 | <0.001 | 2.75 | 2.37 | - | 3.19 | <0.001 |
| Unsurvivable | 3.79 | 3.00 | - | 4.79 | <0.001 | 0.39 | 0.31 | - | 0.51 | <0.001 |
| ISS | ||||||||||
| Minor (≤16) | (ref) | (ref) | ||||||||
| Major (17-25) | 4.51 | 4.12 | - | 4.94 | <0.001 | 1.85 | 1.70 | - | 2.01 | <0.001 |
| Critically injured (>25) | 7.10 | 6.55 | - | 7.70 | <0.001 | 2.57 | 2.34 | - | 2.81 | <0.001 |
| Hypoxia | ||||||||||
| No | (ref) | (ref) | ||||||||
| Yes | 2.08 | 1.74 | - | 2.50 | <0.001 | 1.15 | 1.00 | - | 1.32 | 0.045 |
| Hypotension | ||||||||||
| No | (ref) | (ref) | ||||||||
| Yes | 2.32 | 1.96 | - | 2.76 | <0.001 | 1.18 | 1.03 | - | 1.35 | 0.016 |
| Hemoglobin | 0.81 | 0.80 | - | 0.82 | <0.001 | 0.91 | 0.90 | - | 0.93 | <0.001 |
| Glucose | 1.15 | 1.12 | - | 1.17 | <0.001 | 1.04 | 1.03 | - | 1.06 | <0.001 |
| Marshall CT classification | ||||||||||
| 1 | (ref) | (ref) | ||||||||
| 2 | 4.05 | 3.74 | - | 4.40 | <0.001 | 1.53 | 1.39 | - | 1.69 | <0.001 |
| 3 | 8.03 | 6.68 | - | 9.65 | <0.001 | 2.17 | 1.78 | - | 2.66 | <0.001 |
| 4 | 5.96 | 4.05 | - | 8.79 | <0.001 | 2.40 | 1.72 | - | 3.35 | <0.001 |
| 5 | 9.93 | 6.59 | - | 14.97 | <0.001 | 2.49 | 1.77 | - | 3.49 | <0.001 |
| 6 | 7.11 | 6.43 | - | 7.87 | <0.001 | 2.34 | 2.05 | - | 2.67 | <0.001 |
| CT abnormalities | ||||||||||
| Cisternal compression | 2.55 | 2.29 | - | 2.85 | <0.001 | 0.94 | 0.81 | - | 1.08 | 0.394 |
| Midline shift | 2.19 | 1.92 | - | 2.48 | <0.001 | 0.86 | 0.74 | - | 1.00 | 0.044 |
| Subarachnoid heamorrhage | 2.65 | 2.45 | - | 2.87 | <0.001 | 1.03 | 0.95 | - | 1.13 | 0.444 |
| Epidural hematoma | 1.59 | 1.39 | - | 1.82 | <0.001 | 0.98 | 0.89 | - | 1.08 | 0.654 |
| Acute subdural hematoma | 2.11 | 1.93 | - | 2.31 | <0.001 | 1.18 | 1.09 | - | 1.28 | <0.001 |
| Diffuse axonal injury | 1.92 | 1.69 | - | 2.19 | <0.001 | 0.98 | 0.90 | - | 1.06 | 0.623 |
| Contusion | 2.46 | 2.27 | - | 2.68 | <0.001 | 0.94 | 0.85 | - | 1.04 | 0.259 |
CI, confidence interval; TBI, traumatic brain injury; AIS, Abbreviated Injury Score; ISS, Injury Severity Score; CT, computed tomography.