. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2024 Oct 1.

Published in final edited form as: Eval Rev. 2023 Mar 21;47(5):763–785. doi: 10.1177/0193841X231164908

Table 2.

Results from single-level unadjusted and multi-level adjusted linear regressions for increase from 2015 to 2019/20 average prices of tobacco products.

	San Francisco	Alameda County^a
	Cheapest Cigs	Cheapest Cigs	Newport Menthol cigs^b	Blu Menthol e-Cigs
Variable	n = 202	n = 261	n = 195 (ICC = 0.15)	n = 70
Increase in 2019/20 compared to 2015 Race/Ethnicity	4.617 (0.288)^***	2.532 (0.171)^***	2.881 (0.560)^***	2.822 (0.751)^***
% of Black, non-Hispanic population	—	−0.069 (0.059)	−0.003 (0.052)	−0.056 (0.163)
% of Hispanic population	—	−0.008 (0.012)	−0.003 (0.012)	−0.003 (0.039)
Median household income (in U.S. dollars)	—
1^st tertile (n = 128, $73,692)	—	1.944 (1.148)	0.609 (1.051)	3.269 (3.255)
2^nd tertile (n = 68, $78,003–95,400)	—	0.483 (0.416)	0.240 (0.361)	0.660 (1.310)
3^rd tertile (n = 99, $97,286–156,400)	—	Ref	Ref	Ref

Notes: Results shown are unadjusted (for San Francisco) and adjusted (for Alameda County) b-coefficients and their corresponding standard errors.

^***

p < 0.001

^**

p < 0.01

p < 0.05.

Models assessed increase in the average prices from 2015 to 2019/20 adjusting for percentages of non-Hispanic, Black and Latino populations, and median household income for cities of Alameda County.

A multi-level model (using PROC MIXED with empirical “sandwich” estimator for robust standard errors) included random effect for city to account for possible clustering by cities in Alameda County (i.e., Alameda, Albany, Berkeley, Castro Valley, Dublin, Emeryville, Fremont, Hayward, Livermore, Newark, Oakland, Pleasanton, San Leandro, San Lorenzo, Sunol, and Union City).