Table 3.

An overview of key reviews on potential solutions and facilitators for promoting cycling.

Author	Level of intervention in the social-ecological model	Main findings
Kelly (5)	Individual Social	A scoping review of literature on individual, social, and organizational level interventions to improve cycling levels. The study creates a map to summarise the broad action types (described by Michie et al. 110) feasible for implementation within organization/group-based cycling promotion initiatives, to act as a critical tool for employers, communities, practitioners, and researchers in designing interventions to increase cycling.
Kärmeniemi (111)	Physical environment	A systematic review of before-and-after design studies to assess how impacting the built environment impacts on physical activity. New routes and bike lanes, traffic free routes, perceived access to destinations, bus-ways with parallel cycling paths, and reductions in perceived danger all predicted increases in cycling.
Winters (112)	Policy	Found evidence that policies related to active travel may operate at various levels of the socio-ecological framework, including society, cities, routes or individuals. The provision of convenient, safe and connected walking and cycling infrastructure is at the core of promoting active travel, but policies may work best when implemented in comprehensive packages.
Savan (113)	Social Individual	Based on a comprehensive literature review, key elements from the social psychology literature associated with successful cycling adoption initiatives were reported. Five key interlocking strategies were described: (1) strategic population segmentation; (2) identification and removal of barriers; (3) the use of commitment strategies, including the foot in the door and pledge techniques; (4) tactics to sustain behaviour change, including visual images, prompts, reminders, social cues and modelling, social norms, branding, feedback and incentives, and; (5) ongoing social support, through modelling, local hubs and community involvement.
Giles-Corti (114)	Physical environment Policy	This narrative review identified eight integrated interventions that are needed to create cities that promote (walking and) cycling. “Urban” and “Transport planning and design” policies were differentiated. Planning interventions included destination accessibility, employment distribution, and parking demand management. Urban design interventions included connective design, residential density, distance to public transport, land-use diversity, and neighbourhood desirability.
Fell and Kivinen (115)	Social Physical environment	This review reported that there is a widespread agreement in the literature that the most effective mechanisms for boosting cycling (and walking) comprise integrated and complementary packages of interventions. Infrastructure is generally regarded as necessary but not sufficient to boost cycling and walking; while behaviour change interventions in the absence of adequate enabling infrastructure are also judged unlikely to be effective. Effective interventions include; Personal travel planning, Cycle to Work days, Cycle-hire/bike-share schemes, Provision of dedicated cycling lanes (and bicycle parking) and Some school-based interventions. The best investment strategy may comprise a strategic, networked approach and is likely to comprise a mix of measures.
Stewart (116)	Social Physical environment	A systematic review of 12 studies which aimed to increase commuter cycling. Group level approaches: Three bike to work schemes had mixed, but generally positive effects. A self-help programme did not impact cycling, but a support programme that provided social support and bicycles had a large effect. A 2 month cycling training programme had no effect, while a 12 month programme did. Environmental approaches: A single infrastructure project (building a bridge) increased cycle commuting, while two city-wide infrastructure interventions had positive impacts. Two whole of city investment approaches had small positive effects that were considered difficult to detect.
Hunter (117)	Social Physical environment	A systematic review of 12 studies to promote physical activity in urban green space. An urban greenway trail designed to enhance connectivity of pedestrian infrastructure with nearby retail establishments and schools, showed increases in cycling. A promotion campaign of a newly constructed Rail Trail that included press ads, maps of trails, newspapers and local radio, brochures distributed to local organizations and schools, and a launch event showed that intervention group cyclists increased mean cycling time compared to control area cyclists, and mean bike counts on the trail increased after the trail launch.
Mayne (118)	Physical environment	A systematic review of natural or quasi-experiments to examine the effects of policy and built environment changes on obesity-related outcomes; 17 addressed physical activity. Bike lanes and off-street bike paths increased cycling in three out of four studies. Two studies found increased cycling after implementation of the London and Montreal bicycle share programmes.
Community Preventive Services Task Force (119)	Physical environment	A systematic review of 90 studies provided evidence for the effectiveness of cycling infrastructure including protected bicycle lanes, trails, traffic calming, intersection design, street lighting and landscaping.
Scheepers (120)	Individual Social Physical environment	This review reported interventions categorised as work-place, changes to urban design, population-wide, and bike sharing which were typically multi-component, including self-help materials, public awareness, social marketing campaigns, and workplace travel plans. Of 14 studies which reported effects on cycling, 10 reported increases in cycling. Increases in cycling were reported for an annual short term campaign, workplace travel plans (e.g. storage, subsidized bicycles, facilities), commuter cycling promotion, financial incentives, car-free city centres, town-wide initiatives, cycle proficiency classes, individualised marketing, smart bicycles, and bicycle sharing schemes. Negligible effects for neighbourhood trails, traffic tolls, national cycle networks, cycle paths.
Bird (121)	Individual	A systematic review investigated what individual level behaviour change techniques have been used to promote walking and cycling. Of 46 included studies, n = 16 reported combined walking and cycling findings (none were cycling only). While the findings were mixed, they generally supported the inclusion of self-monitoring and intention formation techniques in future walking and cycling intervention design.
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (122)	Individual Social Physical Environment Policy	Guidance on how to increase (walking and) cycling. Policy and planning recommendations included ensuring high-level support from the health sector and ensuring all relevant policies and plans consider (walking and) cycling. Local action recommendations included developing programmes, community wide-programmes, and personalised travel planning. A focus on schools, workplaces and the NHS was also recommended. Other measures to tackle the wider influences on walking or cycling were recommended including measures to reduce road dangers and to reallocate road space to create a more supportive environment. The need to address health inequalities around (walking and) cycling was emphasised.
Fraser (97)	Physical environment	This review reported evidence from observational studies examining associations between cycling and the built environment. Positive associations were identified between cycling and dedicated cycle lanes and ‘safe routes to school programme’.
Yang (123)	Individual Social	A systematic review of actions to promote cycling. Promoting specifically cycling: an intensive individual intervention in obese women, high quality improvements to a cycle route network, and two multifaceted cycle promotion initiatives at town or city level were found to be associated with increases in cycling. An educational and promotional intervention for cycling to school did not impact school journeys but increased recreational cycling. A community based social marketing programme involving information provision, cycle training, free bike hire, and a Ride To Work Day campaign aimed to promote the use of existing cycle paths showed residents no overall increase cycling. Individualised marketing of “environmentally friendly” modes of transport: n = 16 interventions aimed to promote a shift from cars to environmentally friendly modes of transport (walking, cycling, and public transport) by providing information tailored to individual households’ interests and requirements and were associated with modest but generally consistent net increases in cycling trip frequency. Other interventions that targeted travel behaviour: A sustainable transport public awareness campaign involving leaflets, mass media, exhibitions and talks in schools in the context of improvements to local transport infrastructure saw modest increases in cycling. A car-share initiative saw small decreases in cycling. A financial incentive intervention for not using a car-parking space reported a very small increase in cycling.
Bauman (108)	Individual Social Physical environment Policy	An overview of interventions shown to be successful in Australia. These were shown to be; Mass marketing campaigns highlighting the benefits of cycling; Bicycle education programs to increase skills, confidence and safety; Behaviour change initiatives to market alternatives to car use; Cycling events to provide incentives for people to ride in a supportive environment particularly for novice riders; Urban planning; Improved bicycle infrastructure; and funding from all levels of government focused on increasing bicycle friendly design.
Ogilvie (124)	Individual Social Physical environment	A systematic review of studies which attempted to promote walking and cycling as an alternative to using a car. Results typically presented for combined walking and cycling however some evidence was found that targeted programmes led to behaviour change in motivated groups. There was inconclusive evidence for other intervention types such as publicity campaigns, engineering measures and financial incentives.