Table 2.
Markers of tumour cell activation and proliferation in bone tissue
| Activation of proliferation markers | Role | Effect |
|---|---|---|
| Nuclear factor-κB activator ligand (RANKL) | Binds to the RANK receptor on the surface of osteoclast precursors | Osteoclast activation |
| Receptor activator of nuclear factor-κB (RANK) | Binds specifically to RANKL | Osteoclast activation |
| Osteoprotegerin (OPG) | Inducible receptors for RANKL | Reduces osteoclast production by binding to RANKL |
| Parathyroid hormone-related protein (PTHrP) | Interacts with PTHR1 and promotes RANKL expression | Promotes osteoclast-mediated bone resorption |
| Transforming growth factor β (TGF-β) | Up-regulation of PTHrP expression | Promotes osteoclast-mediated bone resorption |
| Insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) | Promotes chemotaxis and colonisation of tumour cells | Tumour cells proliferate in bone tissue |
| Interleukin-6 (IL-6) | Induces osteoclastic action and inhibits osteogenesis | Increased bone resorption and reduced bone formation |
| Interleukin-11 (IL-11) | Induces osteoclastic action and inhibits osteogenesis | Increased bone resorption and reduced bone formation |
| Prostaglandin E2 | Increased RANKL expression | Increased bone resorption |
| Macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF) | Induces osteoclastic action and inhibits osteogenesis | Increased bone resorption |
| Tumour necrosis factor α (TNF-α) | Induces osteoclastic action and inhibits osteogenesis | Increased bone resorption |
| Integrin (integrin) | Promoting tumour cell colonisation of bone tissue | Facilitates proliferation of tumour cells in bone tissue |
| E-calcified adhesion protein (E-cadherin) | Intercellular adhesion | Associated with infiltration and metastasis of tumour cells |
| Osteoblastin (OPN) | Regulation of osteoblasts | Regulation of bone resorption |
| Bone Salivary Protein (BSP) | Regulation of osteoblasts | Regulation of bone resorption |