Table 3.
Food Insecurity and Its Association With Immigration Status Stratified by SNAP Utilization and Income–Poverty Ratio
| Variable | Stratified by SNAP |
Stratified by income |
|||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| SNAP yes (n=5,433) | SNAP no (n=51,488) | Income below 100% FPL (n=5,264) | Income between 100% and 200% FPL (n=9,389) | Income above 200% FPL (n=42,268) | |
| Immigration status (ref: U.S.-born citizens) | |||||
| Naturalized citizens | 0.78 (0.56, 1.08) | 1.21 (0.98, 1.49) | 0.95 (0.67, 1.35) | 0.78 (0.58, 1.05) | 1.61 (1.21, 2.14)⁎⁎ |
| Noncitizens | 1.04 (0.71, 1.53) | 1.32 (1.01, 1.73)* | 1.36 (0.97, 1.91) | 0.90 (0.62, 1.30) | 1.88 (1.24, 2.86)⁎⁎ |
| Race (ref: White) | |||||
| Black | 0.98 (0.80, 1.19) | 2.17 (1.86, 2.52)⁎⁎⁎ | 1.14 (0.93, 1.40) | 1.47 (1.19, 1.80)⁎⁎⁎ | 2.40 (1.95, 2.96)⁎⁎⁎ |
| AIAN | 1.35 (0.94, 1.93) | 1.90 (1.37, 2.65)⁎⁎⁎ | 1.79 (1.19, 2.69)⁎⁎ | 1.43 (0.94, 2.17) | 1.66 (0.99, 2.79) |
| Asian | 0.84 (0.49, 1.44) | 0.87 (0.63, 1.20) | 0.84 (0.53, 1.33) | 0.89 (0.57, 1.39) | 0.68 (0.39, 1.17) |
| Other | 1.43 (0.78, 2.62) | 1.78 (1.13, 2.78)* | 0.88 (0.44, 1.79) | 2.07 (1.16, 3.69)* | 2.22 (1.26, 3.91)⁎⁎ |
| Hispanic | 0.85 (0.64, 1.14) | 1.12 (0.91, 1.38) | 1.01 (0.75, 1.37) | 0.85 (0.64, 1.14) | 1.29 (0.97, 1.72) |
| Education (ref: no diploma) | |||||
| GED or high school | 0.83 (0.67, 1.02) | 0.87 (0.71, 1.07) | 0.91 (0.73, 1.14) | 0.75 (0.60, 0.94)* | 0.93 (0.67, 1.31) |
| Some college | 0.88 (0.71, 1.09) | 0.88 (0.73, 1.08) | 0.88 (0.70, 1.10) | 0.90 (0.71, 1.14) | 0.81 (0.58, 1.15) |
| Bachelor | 0.64 (0.46, 0.88)⁎⁎ | 0.57 (0.45, 0.72)⁎⁎⁎ | 0.51 (0.36, 0.73)⁎⁎⁎ | 0.71 (0.52, 0.98)* | 0.51 (0.35, 0.74)⁎⁎⁎ |
| Higher graduate | 0.48 (0.29, 0.79)⁎⁎ | 0.38 (0.28, 0.53)⁎⁎⁎ | 0.42 (0.24, 0.74)⁎⁎ | 0.62 (0.39, 0.99)* | 0.33 (0.21, 0.51)⁎⁎⁎ |
| Married | 1.20 (0.99, 1.47) | 0.81 (0.70, 0.95)⁎⁎ | 1.06 (0.84, 1.33) | 0.99 (0.83, 1.19) | 0.88 (0.71, 1.10) |
| Female | 1.25 (1.05, 1.47)* | 1.29 (1.15, 1.45)⁎⁎⁎ | 1.14 (0.96, 1.36) | 1.34 (1.14, 1.58)⁎⁎⁎ | 1.29 (1.09, 1.52)⁎⁎ |
| Age | 0.99 (0.98, 0.99)⁎⁎⁎ | 0.98 (0.98, 0.99)⁎⁎⁎ | 0.99 (0.87, 1.00)⁎⁎ | 0.98 (0.98, 0.99)⁎⁎⁎ | 0.98 (0.97, 0.99)⁎⁎⁎ |
| Sexual minority | 1.45 (1.02, 2.06)* | 1.33 (1.01, 1.74)* | 1.45 (0.96, 2.20) | 1.08 (0.77, 1.52) | 1.66 (1.19, 2.34)⁎⁎ |
| SNAP utilizer | 2.20 (1.82, 2.66)⁎⁎⁎ | 2.33 (1.96, 2.78)⁎⁎⁎ | 4.10 (3.08, 5.44)⁎⁎⁎ | ||
| Health status (ref: excellent or very good) | |||||
| Good | 1.13 (0.91, 1.39) | 1.98 (1.72, 2.29)⁎⁎⁎ | 1.22 (0.97, 1.53) | 1.78 (1.45, 2.18)⁎⁎⁎ | 2.00 (1.65, 2.41)⁎⁎⁎ |
| Fair or poor | 1.90 (1.55, 2.34)⁎⁎⁎ | 3.48 (2.93, 4.14)⁎⁎⁎ | 2.18 (1.72, 2.75)⁎⁎⁎ | 3.09 (2.48, 3.85)⁎⁎⁎ | 3.04 (2.37, 3.91)⁎⁎⁎ |
| Region (ref: West) | |||||
| Northeast | 0.93 (0.70, 1.23) | 1.14 (0.93, 1.41) | 1.03 (0.76, 1.40) | 0.97 (0.72, 1.29) | 1.19 (0.90, 1.58) |
| Midwest | 1.21 (0.95, 1.55) | 1.10 (0.91, 1.32) | 1.06 (0.80, 1.40) | 1.35 (1.06, 1.71)* | 0.98 (0.74, 1.28) |
| South | 1.10 (0.88, 1.37) | 1.12 (0.94, 1.33) | 1.14 (0.88, 1.49) | 0.98 (0.78, 1.22) | 1.22 (0.96, 1.54) |
| Nonmetropolitan resident | 0.75 (0.61, 0.93)⁎⁎ | 1.09 (0.92, 1.29) | 0.86 (0.70, 1.06) | 0.88 (0.73, 1.07) | 1.08 (0.82, 1.42) |
| Disabled | 1.66 (1.37, 2.01)⁎⁎⁎ | 1.69 (1.41, 2.04)⁎⁎⁎ | 1.60 (1.31, 1.95)⁎⁎⁎ | 1.49 (1.22, 1.84)⁎⁎⁎ | 2.37 (1.77, 3.18)⁎⁎⁎ |
| Having health insurance | 0.80 (0.60, 1.06) | 0.54 (0.45, 0.64)⁎⁎⁎ | 0.78 (0.61, 1.00) | 0.62 (0.50, 0.78)⁎⁎⁎ | 0.45 (0.35, 0.59)⁎⁎⁎ |
| Employed | 0.89 (0.73, 1.09) | 1.22 (1.05, 1.41)⁎⁎ | 0.89 (0.71, 1.12) | 1.22 (1.01, 1.48)* | 1.18 (0.95, 1.46) |
| Income–poverty ratio (ref: >200% FPL) | |||||
| <100% FPL | 2.58 (1.92, 3.46)⁎⁎⁎ | 4.48 (3.72, 5.38)⁎⁎⁎ | |||
| 100%–200% FPL | 1.94 (1.44, 2.60)⁎⁎⁎ | 3.45 (3.00, 3.97)⁎⁎⁎ | |||
| Household size (ref: ≥3) | |||||
| 1 | 1.01 (0.75, 1.35) | 1.26 (1.03, 1.55)* | 0.96 (0.71, 1.31) | 0.98 (0.74, 1.28) | 1.74 (1.30, 2.32)⁎⁎⁎ |
| 2 | 1.08 (0.83, 1.41) | 0.98 (0.81–, 1.18) | 0.93 (0.70, 1.25) | 0.91 (0.71, 1.17) | 1.12 (0.87, 1.44) |
| Children aged <18 years (ref: 0) | |||||
| 1 | 0.89 (0.67, 1.19) | 1.01 (0.82, 1.25) | 0.99 (0.72, 1.37) | 0.82 (0.62, 1.09)* | 1.16 (0.86, 1.57) |
| 2 | 0.73 (0.51, 1.03) | 0.93 (0.72, 1.87) | 0.89 (0.60, 1.32) | 0.66 (0.47, 0.93) | 1.14 (0.82 1.58) |
| ≥3 | 0.68 (0.47, 0.99)* | 1.41 (1.06, 1.87)* | 0.80 (0.54, 1.18) | 0.86 (0.60, 1.23) | 1.65 (1.07, 2.54)* |
| Year 2020 (ref: 2019) | 0.93 (0.78, 1.09) | 0.93 (0.82, 1.05) | 1.04 (0.87, 1.24) | 1.03 (0.88, 1.21) | 0.75 (0.63, 0.89)⁎⁎ |
Note: Boldface indicates statistical significance (*p<0.05, ⁎⁎p<0.01, and ⁎⁎⁎p<0.001).
Numbers reported in the table are AORs with their 95% CIs. Sexual minority includes gay/lesbian/something else.
AIAN, American Indian/Alaska Native; FPL, federal poverty level; SNAP, Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program.