Table 2.

Major Challenges for Humans and Animal Artificial Intelligence Infectious Disease Imaging Research and Corresponding Solutions

Challenges	Solutions	Animal Research	Human Research
Data scarcity	Self-supervised learning, semisupervised learning, and data-centric AI	X	X
Model interpretability	Explainable AI techniques	X	X
Disease specificity	Multimodal models	X	X
Spectrum bias	Improvement of recruiting methods and animal models, bias loss term, oversampling or undersampling, and synthetic data	X	X
Development of imaging tools	Additional funding for research	X	…
Control over environmental variables	Careful design of input features and explainable AI techniques	…	X
Cost per image	Additional funding for research	X	…
Privacy	Federated and swarm learning	…	X

Abbreviation: AI, artificial intelligence;