Table 3. Summary of CGM metrics by BMI classification in healthy non-diabetes participants.
| BMI | Underweight | Normal weight | Overweight | P | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| (< 18.5) | (18.5 ≦ < 25) | (≥ 25) | ||||
| Characteristics of participants | Gr1 (n = 5) | Gr2 (n = 31) | Gr3 (n = 4) | Gr1 vs Gr2 | Gr1 vs Gr3 | Gr2 vs Gr3 |
| Male, % | 0 (0%) | 18 (58%) | 2 (50%) | 0.016 | 0.167 | 0.581 |
| Age, year | 35.4 ± 11.3 | 40.5 ± 12.4 | 45.3 ± 8.6 | 0.399 | 0.194 | 0.461 |
| BMI, kg/m2 | 17.8 ± 0.6 | 20.8 ±1.4 | 25.0 ± 1.6 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
| FBS, mg/dL | 86.6 ± 6.8 | 91.0 ± 12.5 | 89.8 ± 8.3 | 0.844 | 0.550 | 0.844 |
| HbA1c, % | 5.1 ± 0.3 | 5.3 ± 0.4 | 5.4 ± 0.3 | 0.297 | 0.110 | 0.441 |
| Prediabetes, (%) | 0 (0%) | 13 (42%) | 1 (25%) | 0.089 | 0.444 | 0.470 |
| Overall glucose distribution and variability | ||||||
| Mean, mg/dL | 105.8 ± 5.2 | 108.1 ± 9.0 | 114.0 ± 10.3 | 0.599 | 0.163 | 0.228 |
| SD, mg/dL | 23.7 ± 3.5 | 19.8 ± 3.7 | 24.2 ± 6.5 | 0.038 | 0.897 | 0.054 |
| CV, % | 22.6 ± 4.6 | 18.4 ± 3.2 | 21.0 ± 4.1 | 0.015 | 0.598 | 0.153 |
| MAGE, mg/dL | 56.6 ± 7.4 | 49.7 ± 10.2 | 60.5 ±12.0 | 0.154 | 0.567 | 0.057 |
| Percentage of glucose sensor values | ||||||
| TAR (180), % | 1.2 ± 0.4 | 0.9 ± 1.3 | 2.5 ± 2.5 | 0.649 | 0.287 | 0.046 |
| TAR (180) > 0, % | 5 (100%) | 15 (48%) | 3 (75%) | 0.041 | 0.444 | 0.323 |
| TIR (70–180), % | 95.0 ± 4.6 | 98.2 ± 1.5 | 97.3 ± 3.0 | 0.203 | 0.431 | 0.309 |
| TAR (140), % | 8.2 ± 1.1 | 8.2 ± 7.0 | 14.8 ± 7.9 | 0.994 | 0.197 | 0.092 |
| TIR (70–140), % | 87.6 ± 5.2 | 90.8 ± 6.7 | 85.3 ± 7.9 | 0.314 | 0.607 | 0.134 |
| Life style related factors | ||||||
| Energy (kcal/d) | 1406 ±180 | 1606 ± 409 | 1834 ±721 | 0.358 | 0.353 | 0.190 |
| < Estimated energy requirement (PAL I) | 4 (80%) | 28 (90%) | 3 (75%) | 0.466 | 0.556 | 0.687 |
| Nutrients (% energy) | ||||||
| Protein (% energy) | 14.8 ± 0.5 | 15.7 ± 2.3 | 17.8 ± 3.5 | 0.447 | 0.086 | 0.087 |
| Fat (% energy) | 28.3 ±1.8 | 29.4 ± 5.2 | 29.2 ± 2.0 | 0.358 | 0.505 | 0.915 |
| Carbohydrates (% energy) | 51.8 ± 4.2 | 47.2 ± 7.3 | 47.0 ± 8.6 | 0.183 | 0.305 | 0.955 |
| Alcohol (% energy) | 4.0 ± 5.1 | 6.4 ± 7.6 | 4.2 ± 8.4 | 0.496 | 0.970 | 0.583 |
| Food groups (g/d) | ||||||
| Rice (g/d) | 129.9 ± 64.1 | 216.3 ± 118.3 | 218.9 ± 125.2 | 0.036 | 0.257 | 0.969 |
| Bread (g/d) | 36.9 ± 21.2 | 32.2 ± 23.8 | 33.1 ± 32.3 | 0.679 | 0.838 | 0.942 |
| Noodles (g/d) | 93.1 ± 41.6 | 55.8 ± 37.8 | 86.1 ± 68.2 | 0.051 | 0.853 | 0.179 |
| Confections (g/d) | 73.4 ± 36.4 | 61.1 ± 46.2 | 38.0 ± 24.1 | 0.576 | 0.140 | 0.336 |
| Meat (g/d) | 64.7 ± 2.4 | 84.4 ± 36.9 | 82.0 ± 12.3 | 0.006 | 0.064 | 0.901 |
| Fish and shellfish (g/d) | 41.9 ± 15.1 | 63.5 ± 27.9 | 88.8 ± 48.3 | 0.103 | 0.146 | 0.127 |
| Vegetables (g/d) | 205.2 ± 39.3 | 212.3 ± 106.9 | 171.4 ± 37.3 | 0.885 | 0.231 | 0.457 |
| Fruits (g/d) | 85.2 ± 36.2 | 91.8 ± 90.0 | 90.5 ± 65.4 | 0.873 | 0.881 | 0.977 |
| Milk and milk products (g/d) | 87.6 ± 102.9 | 102.2 ± 75.6 | 122.3 ± 50.8 | 0.705 | 0.560 | 0.611 |
| Sugar sweetened beverages (g/d) | 13.3 ± 13.3 | 74.7 ± 85.7 | 106.5 ± 120.2 | 0.001 | 0.219 | 0.508 |
| Eating Behaviors G5: eating style | ||||||
| Do you eat fast? | 2.4 ± 0.5 | 2.9 ± 0.9 | 3.3 ± 1.0 | 0,240 | 0.136 | 0.479 |
| Do you eat without chewing too much? | 2.2 ± 0.4 | 2.9 ± 0.8 | 3.0 ± 0.8 | 0.066 | 0.101 | 0.754 |
| Do you have a lot of mouthfuls? | 2.0 ± 0.7 | 2.7 ± 0.8 | 3.0 ± 0.8 | 0.081 | 0.089 | 0.450 |
| Eating Behaviors G6: food preference | ||||||
| Do you often eat snacks? | 2.0 ± 0.7 | 2.0 ± 0.9 | 2.5 ± 1.3 | 1.000 | 0.480 | 0.305 |
| Do you often drink? | 2.0 ± 0.7 | 2.0 ± 0.9 | 2.5 ± 1.3 | 1.000 | 0.480 | 0.306 |
| Eating Behaviors G7: regularity of eating habits | ||||||
| Do you often skip meals during the day? | 2.6 ± 1.5 | 2.0 ± 1.0 | 2.0 ± 0.8 | 0.286 | 0.502 | 0.952 |
| Do you often skip breakfast? | 2.4 ± 1.5 | 1.9 ± 1.0 | 1.5 ± 1.0 | 0.360 | 0.343 | 0.471 |
| Do you have irregular mealtimes? | 2.8 ± 0.8 | 2.6 ± 0.8 | 2.5 ± 0.6 | 0.617 | 0.563 | 0.777 |
| Don’t you have time to eat slowly? | 3.2 ± 0.8 | 2.5 ± 0.7 | 2.5 ± 1.0 | 0.032 | 0.289 | 0.899 |
| Do you eat between meals during the day? | 3.2 ± 0.8 | 2.3 ± 0.9 | 1.8 ± 1.0 | 0.043 | 0.046 | 0.229 |
| Do you eat a late-night snack? | 2.2 ± 0.8 | 1.7 ± 0.9 | 1.3 ± 0.5 | 0.291 | 0.087 | 0.292 |
| Do you often drink canned juice, canned coffee, or energy drinks? | 1.6 ± 0.5 | 1.8 ± 0.9 | 1.5 ± 1.0 | 0.554 | 0.853 | 0.471 |
| Dairy Activity (n = 5, 30, 4) | ||||||
| Average dairy step counts | 8648 ± 2572 | 9749 ± 2408 | 6394 ± 2337 | 0.355 | 0.217 | 0.013 |
| Average daily step counts ≥ 10,000 | 2 (40%) | 14 (47%) | 0 (0%) | 0.585 | 0.278 | 0.104 |
CGM, continuous glucose monitoring; SD, standard deviation; CV, coefficient variation; MAGE, mean amplitude of glycemic excursions; TAR, time above range; TIR, time in range. Prediabetes was defined by the HbA1c level of 5.7 to 6.4% and /or impaired fasting glucose level of 100 to 125 mg/dL.