Table 1.

Prospective studies on dietary modification for symptomatic GERD

Author	Study design	Subject	Intervention	Follow-up duration	Outcome
Pehl etal. (1999) [16]	Non-RCT	12 healthy volunteers	Low-fat vs high-fat	–	No difference in the frequency of TLESRs, AET, and LESP was observed
Penagini etal. (1998) [15]	Non-RCT	13 healthy volunteers and 14 GERD patients	High-fat vs balanced fat	–	No difference in esophageal acid exposure, the rate of reflux episodes, the rate of TLESRs, and basal LESP was observed
Fox etal. (2007) [17]	Non-RCT	15 GERD patients	High-calorie vs low-calorie	–	High-calorie diet led to AET increase*
Pointer etal. (2016) [19]	Non-RCT	144 obese women	High-fat/low-carbohydrate diet	16 weeks	Total carbohydrates, total sugars, GERD symptoms, and medication usage decreased
Gu etal. (2022) [20]	RCT	98 GERD patients	HTHS (n = 22) vs HTLS (n = 26) vs LTHS (n = 22) vs LTLS (n = 25)	9 weeks	Reduction in simple sugar intake led to decrease in AET* and reflux episodes* and overall improvement of symptoms
Morozov etal. (2018) [22]	Non-RCT	36 non-erosive gastroesophageal reflux disease patients	A fiber-enriched diet	10 days	The frequency of heartburn***, the number of refluxes***, and minimal resting LESP decreased*
Aanen etal. (2006) [23]	Crossover RCT	10 healthy volunteers	5 g of NaCl vs placebo in capsules per day	1 week	No difference in the number of reflux episodes and TLESRs was observed
Tosetti etal. (2021) [13]	Non-RCT	100 GERD patients	Elimination of specific food items	2 weeks	Overall improvement of symptoms was observed
Mehta etal. (2020) [29]	Cohort study	48,308 women	–	262,641 person-years	Coffee, tea, and soda consumption were risk factors for GERD
Patcharatrakul etal. (2021) [33]	Crossover RCT	21 patients with overlapped GERD and irritable bowel syndrome	Wheat noodles vs rice noodles	–	Wheat ingestion increased heartburn and regurgitation scores*
Rivière etal. (2021) [32]	RCT	31 refractory GERD patients	A low-FODMAP diet (n = 16) vs usual diet (n = 15)	4 weeks	No difference in total Reflux Disease Questionnaire score, acid exposure, and reflux episodes was observed
Wu etal. (2014) [37]	Non-RCT	15 GERD patients	High-volume vs low-volume	2 consecutive days	A high-volume meal increased total number of reflux episodes*, AET*, and the number of reflux symptoms**
Wildi etal. (2004) [38]	Non-RCT	20 healthy volunteers	Fast vs slow eating	2 consecutive days	Rapid food intake increased the number of reflux episodes*
Bor etal. (2013) [39]	Non-RCT	46 GERD patients	Fast vs slow eating	2 consecutive days	No difference in the total number of refluxepisodes was observed
Valitova etal. (2013) [40]	Non-RCT	60 GERD patients	Fast vs slow eating	2 consecutive days	No difference in the number of reflux episodes and symptoms was observed
Piesman etal. (2007) [42]	Crossover RCT	32 GERD patients	Early vs late meal	2 consecutive days	An early meal decreased supine AET** and the number of nocturnal episodes*

AET, acid exposure time; FODMAP, fermentable, oligosaccharides, disaccharides, monosaccharides, and polyols; GERD, gastroesophageal reflux disease; HTHS, high total/high simple carbohydrate; HTLS, high total/low simple carbohydrate; LESP, lower esophageal sphincter pressure; LTHS, low total/high simple carbohydrate; LTLS, low total/low simple carbohydrate; RCT, randomized–controlled trial; TLESRs, transient lower esophageal sphincter relaxations.

^* P < 0.05;

^** P ≤ 0.01;

^*** P ≤ 0.001.