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. 2023 Oct 5;13:16805. doi: 10.1038/s41598-023-44042-5

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© The Author(s) 2023

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Structural equation model showing the effects of stand age, soil environment, soil nutrients, litter quality, microbial community and enzyme activity on litter C and N loss (N = 189). (a,b) Path diagrams of factors influencing litter C and N stocks. (a,b) Summed direct and indirect effects. Solid red and green arrows represent positive and negative relationships, respectively. Dashed arrows represent no significant effects. Numbers adjacent to arrows are standardized path coefficients, analogous to relative regression weights. (***P < 0.001; **P < 0.01; *P < 0.05). R² represents the proportion of variance explained for every response variable in the model. The goodness-of-fit statistics for panels (a,b) are P = 0.306, GFI = 0.98, RMSEA = 0.027 and P = 0.421, GFI = 0.974, RMSEA = 0.013, respectively. SE Soil environment, LQ Litter quality, MC Microbial community, EN Enzyme, SM Soil moisture, C Litter C, N Litter N, GN Gram-negative bacteria, F:(GP + GN) Fungal-bacterial ratio, AMF Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, NAG β-N-acetyl-glucosaminidase, PEO Peroxidase.