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. 2023 Oct 6;14:6258. doi: 10.1038/s41467-023-41992-2

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© The Author(s) 2023

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 2 — A Scenario 1 life cycle emissions breakdown. The operation phase dominates in terms of emissions, constituting the most significant portion of the life cycle emissions. B Scenario 2 life cycle emissions breakdown. The contribution of the operation phase to the overall life cycle emissions is reduced, closely followed by emissions from the manufacturing phase. This breakdown highlights areas for improvement by emphasizing hotspots that can be strategically addressed to achieve substantial reductions in life cycle emissions.