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. 2023 Oct 6;14:6258. doi: 10.1038/s41467-023-41992-2

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© The Author(s) 2023

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 6 — This illustration provides the scope of the study by highlighting processes within each phase of the life cycle of autonomous and nonautonomous vehicles, including their value chain. Source: Authors’ work. The figure is designed by the authors combining copyright-free icons from https://www.flaticon.com. Autodesk Sketchbook, Adobe PS Suite, and Microsoft PowerPoint are used to design the figure.