Table 1.
Summary of the study characteristics of the empirical and quantitative Feng Shui journal articles.
| Researchers | Year | Study objectives | Participants/samples | Interventions | Comparator | Study design | Outcomes | Research methods | Locations | Research orientation | Applications | Reliability/validity | Database | Language |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Han and Sinha [25] | 1996 | To compare and contrast Feng Shui and modern landscape assessment theories and methods. | 5 Feng Shui sites in Taiwan, 5 American environmental experts, 20 college students (12 males, 8 females from North and South America, Europe, and Asia) | Survey | Feng Shui was consistent with the "prospect and refuge theory," "formal aesthetic model," "psychophysical model," and "phenomenological model." | Theories and methods developed in environmental psychology were used to examine the landscapes of the actual good Feng Shui locations in terms of reliability and validity. | Taiwan (Asia) | Site selection | Landscape architecture | Reliability, validity | S | E | ||
| Chen, Feng, and Wang [27] | 1997 | To design interior environments for healthy living. | Characteristics of ancient Chinese quadrangular buildings (thermal environment, natural lighting, noise, infrared absorption and radiation, and insulation, indoor air quality) | Survey | Quadrangular buildings provided good indoor air quality and moderated indoor temperature that improved energy-saving and building standards. | Optimal performance of the ancient Chinese quadrangular building was mathematically analyzed. | China (Asia) | Residence | Environment | Validity | W | E | ||
| Zhuang and Gorlett [28] | 1997 | To investigate forest types and forest evolution in Hong Kong. | 44 sample areas of 400 square meters between 1989 and 1992 | Survey | The Feng Shui forest behind the village had the most complex structure and unique tree species. | On the basis of site history and elevation, forests were divided into three classifications for sampling and data analyses: Feng Shui forest, lowland secondary forest, and mountainous forest. | Hong Kong (Asia) | Environmental planning and design | Ecology | W | E | |||
| Huang [29] | 1998 | To study the possibility of Feng Shui improving modern environmental protection. | 393 citizens of Kaohsiung | Survey | Different age groups showed differences in Feng Shui beliefs, judgements, and their relationship between Feng Shui and environmental protection. The majority agreed with the application of Feng Shui to environmental protection. | One-way ANOVA was used to examine the differences in behavioral orientation (beliefs and attitudes) and application orientation of Feng Shui (using Feng Shui concepts to promote environmental protection) among four age groups. | Taiwan (Asia) | Concepts and attitudes | Environment | T | C | |||
| Wen, Lin, and Peng [30] | 1999 | To discuss the influence of the Feng Shui principles of water management on the living satisfaction of riverside residents. | 235 residents (aged 20 or older) living along the Jingmei River, Taipei | Survey | Inside the river bend, 37.6% of the residents were highly satisfied with their living environment and 17.8% were lowly satisfied. The average satisfaction rating was 5.21. Outside the river bend, only 6.5% of the residents were highly satisfied with their living environment and 47.8 were lowly satisfied. The average satisfaction rating was 4.55. | The living satisfaction (living standards and living environment assessment indicators) was collected using questionnaires, the results of which were statistically analyzed. Since satisfaction was subjective, the personal conditions of the participants were also taken into account in the analysis. | Taiwan (Asia) | Concepts and attitudes | Environment | Validity | T | C | ||
| Tam, Tso, and Lam [31] | 1999 | To investigate the factors (Feng Shui, building age, and accessibility) that influence the regional housing price. | 15 villages with similar local and socio-economic characteristics in Tai Po New Town, Hong Kong | Survey | The correlation between housing prices and Feng Shui was the highest, with a regression coefficient of 0.95. The regression coefficient between building age and Feng Shui was −0.699. Thus, areas having better Feng Shui had more new houses. | Multiple regression analysis was conducted on the three factors affecting regional housing prices. | Hong Kong (Asia) | Residence | Environment | W | E | |||
| McGrath, Liu, and Lam [32] | 2002 | To study the attitude towards and perception of traditional physiognomy (judging a person's character based on facial features) of teeth. | 400 adults in Hong Kong | Survey | Among young (17–26 years old) and middle-aged adults (35–44 years old) in Hong Kong, 63% were aware of traditional physiognomy of teeth, and 24% believed in it. | Hong Kong adults' perceptions of Chinese physiognomy were surveyed by questionnaires drafted after consultation with Feng Shui experts and literature review. The survey was conducted with random samples of telephone numbers provided by the Social Sciences Research Centre of the University of Hong Kong. | Hong Kong (Asia) | Concepts and attitudes | Medicine | W | E | |||
| Mak and Ng [26] | 2005 | To study whether the five elements of Luan Tou [巒頭] theory (dragon, sand, water, cave, and orientation) were consistent with architects' ideas of ideal residential designs. | 76 architects from Australia and 46 from Hong Kong | Survey | Although there were cultural and geographical differences between Eastern and Western architects, there was no significant difference in their preference for the environments of the ideal Feng Shui residence. There were also no significant differences in interior arrangement between the architects from both countries, all of whose ideas conformed to Feng Shui principles. | A survey for architects from Australia and Hong Kong was conducted. They were asked to illustrate the layout of a lounge room. The Luan Tou Feng Shui model was used as the yardstick to examine the views of architects from both countries. | Australia (Oceania), Hong Kong (Asia) |
Residence | Environment | Reliability | W | E | ||
| Lin [33] | 2007 | To study the relationship between negative Feng Shui and house-buying behaviors, including whether negative Feng Shui affected real estate prices, and how appraisers handled the impacts of Feng Shui factors when valuing a real estate. | Real estate brokers in Taipei | Survey | The Feng Shui factor mostly considered by house buyers and appraisers was Wai Sha [外煞]. Nearly 70% of people would not buy a house with serious Feng Shui problems, and the impact on the price of real estate was about 10% of the total price. | Interviews with appraisers in Taipei were conducted. | Taiwan (Asia) | Residence | Environment | T | C | |||
| Han and Hong [20] | 2008 | To examine whether the judgements of Feng Shui experts regarding the environment were consistent in terms of Feng Shui quality. | First questionnaire: 95 Feng Shui experts Second questionnaire: 70 Feng Shui experts |
Survey | Feng Shui experts' ratings of the environment in terms of Feng Shui quality were consistent (0.99≧α ≧ 0.76) and did not differ significantly in terms of gender, occupation, Feng Shui school, time interval, and presence or absence of photos. | The results of the two questionnaire surveys were analyzed for reliability, multivariate variance, and covariance. | Taiwan (Asia) | Knowledge and operational system | Environment | Reliability | T | C | ||
| Chang, Lee, Hung, Tsai, and Perng [34] | 2009 | To use the Efficient Fuzzy Weighted Average (EFWA) in the design of office layouts. | Office layout | Survey | EFWA was more efficient than Fuzzy Weighted Average in providing reliable and informative decisions. | EFWA was used to examine office layout following Luan Tou Feng Shui theory. | Taiwan (Asia) | Knowledge and operational system | Environment | W | E | |||
| Huang and Teng [35] | 2009 | To understand the differences between Chinese superstition and traditional Western superstition. The Chinese Superstitious Belief Scale was developed with six dimensions: traditional customs, homonym, power of crystals, Feng Shui, horoscope, and luck at gambling | Study 1: 363 people in Taiwan Study 2: 395 people in Taiwan |
Survey | Women were more likely to believe in traditional customs and horoscopes than men. People tended to follow rituals of traditional custom for important events, because they were afraid of having bad luck in the future as a result of disobedience of the tradition. | Questionnaire surveys were conducted in accordance with Proportionate Quota Sampling in northern, central, southern, and eastern Taiwan. The scale was developed by Exploratory Factor Analysis. The validity and reliability of the scale were examined by Structural Equation Modeling. | Taiwan (Asia) | Concepts and attitudes | Culture | W | E | |||
| Um [36] | 2009 | To assess the relationship between spatial parameters and grave density. | 5549 grave locations in South Korea | Survey | In accordance with the Spatial Regression Model, the grave density was assessed to be R2 of 0.751 with four topographic parameters. Solar index was the most important factor, followed by elevation, while slope and orientation were less important. | GIS and Spatial Regression Modeling were used to investigate the major control factors of Feng Shui graves. | South Korea (Asia) | Site selection | Environment | Reliability | W | E | ||
| Wang, Lin, and Chang [37] | 2011 | To clarify the relationship between science education and the development of integrated thinking and to examine the extent of acceptance of two contradictory statements from the participants regarding fortune telling, Feng Shui, and ghosts and gods. | Experiment 1: 280 students in Taiwan Experiment 2: 293 students in Taiwan Experiment 3: 298 students in Taiwan |
Two contradictory statements | Elementary school students, middle school students, and college students | Experiment | Science education with an emphasis on scientific knowledge failed to promote scientific and rational thinking, although it increased skepticism among the educated participants. | Three experiments were conducted by using two contradictory statements. The extent of acceptance of fortune-telling, Feng Shui, and ghosts and gods were respectively evaluated by five-point scales. | Taiwan (Asia) | Concepts and attitudes | Education | T | C | |
| Hu, Li, Liao, and Fan [38] | 2011 | To investigate the forest patches of village Feng Shui forest in China by measuring the forest community parameters. | 32 well-protected village Feng Shui forest patches in the Pearl River Delta, China | Survey | Village Feng Shui forest patches retained rich diversity of habitats and tree species, which was important for regional biodiversity. | Feng Shui forest patches in the Pearl River Delta were sampled and investigated. The relationship between forest community parameters, patch size and elevation was examined. Evergreen broadleaf forest, coniferous forest, and mixed forest in the region were also compared. | China (Asia) | Environmental planning and design | Ecology | W | E | |||
| Pheng, Xiaopeng, and Ting [39] | 2012 | To assess the similarities between Feng Shui principles and scenarios and their applicability to Total Building Performance (TBP). | 32 architecture professionals in Singapore | Survey | 25 Feng Shui principles and 12 Feng Shui scenarios were applicable to TBP requirements. This finding indicated that there was common ground between Feng Shui and TBP. | The relationship between Feng Shui users' well-being and building performance and the applicability of Feng Shui to building performance were investigated. Analysis was performed of the data collected by the questionnaire survey of architecture professionals. | Singapore (Asia) | Residence | Environment | Reliability | S | E | ||
| Han and Lo [40] | 2012 | To investigate whether there was any objectively measurable difference between good and bad Feng Shui environments. | 18 Feng Shui environments in Taiwan | Survey | Good and bad Feng Shui environments showed significant differences in geographical features (distances from Dragon cave [龍穴] to Qing Long [青龍], Xuan Wu [玄武], and streams, stream width, and ratio of Qing Long Mountain volume to Bai Hu [白虎] Mountain volume), and in meteorological conditions (average air pressure, relative humidity), and in negative ion level. | After on-site investigations and discussions with a Feng Shui expert, the methods for measuring the geographical features of actual Feng Shui environments were developed. The validity of Feng Shui in terms of the geographical features, meteorology, and negative ions of the environments was statistically analyzed with effect size taken into account. | Taiwan (Asia) | Site selection | Environment | Validity | T | C | ||
| Hsu, Ho, and Lo [41] | 2012 | To examine the correlations between house purchase factors and house purchase decisions and to rank the importance of house purchase factors. | 27 Feng Shui experts in Taiwan | Survey | The top five important house purchase factors were type of house, quality of residency, situation [形勢], ventilation and lighting, and orientation. | Interviews and analyses were conducted by using DEMATEL with Analytic Network Process theory of multi-criteria-decision-making approach. | Taiwan (Asia) | Residence | Environment | Reliability | T | C | ||
| Huang, Liu, and Ku [42] | 2012 | To investigate the perceptions of negative Feng Shui factors among house-buyers and whether these factors affected their willingness to buy. | 100 clients of real estate agencies in Tainan | Survey | House-buyers were divided into two groups: those who thought Feng Shui important (68%) and those who did not (32%). Those who thought Feng Shui important had greater perceptions of Sha Qi [煞氣], and facility Wai Sha [設施外煞], which negatively affected their willingness to buy a house. | Factor analysis using the data obtained from face-to-face survey was conducted with the Varimax method to determine the extent of Feng Shui perceptions. | Taiwan (Asia) | Concepts and attitudes | Environment | T | C | |||
| Chen, Yuei, and Takakazu [43] | 2014 | To understand the scale of the Feng Shui forest, to investigate the actual landscape composition, and to map the distribution and layout of the landscape elements. | Feng Shui forests on Tarama Island, Okinawa | Survey | The cultural landscape with ecological characteristics was taken into account in village planning on the island, which should be upgraded to tourist attractions for better protection. | After a comprehensive investigation of the landscape units of the traditional village in Okinawa, the Feng Shui forest of Talama Island was selected as the study sample. Two hamlets in the selected Feng Shui forest were viewed as a holistic landscape, which underwent a landscape element analysis. | Japan (Asia) | Environmental planning and design | Landscape | W | E | |||
| Lin and Huang [44] | 2014 | To investigate the influence of various Feng Shui factors on commercial real estate prices. | 10,993 actual items of transaction price data from Taiwan from February 2002 to December 2007 | Survey | Four Feng Shui factors (a building directly facing the road [路沖], proximity to viaducts, proximity to temples and altars, and dead-end street [無尾巷]) had negative impacts on commercial real estate prices (office, office and residence, and shop), among which high-priced commercial real estates were the most affected. | Based on Hedonic Pricing theory, analyses were conducted using actual items of trading price data with the Quantile Regression Model. | Taiwan (Asia) | Residence | Environment | T | C | |||
| Han [21] | 2015 | To examine the reliability and validity of Feng Shui through empirical and quantitative methods. | 70 Feng Shui experts and 18 Feng Shui sites in Taiwan | Survey | The reliability and validity of the Luan Tou school were demonstrated. Both subjective judgements of Feng Shui experts (good Feng Shui principles such as “protection from the wind and gathering Qi” [藏風聚氣] and “behind Yin and in front of Yang” [負陰抱陽]) and objective geographic features (buildings, dragons, sand, caves, water, aspect, and overall) met the Feng Shui principle of “protection from the wind” [藏風]. | The subjective judgements of 70 Feng Shui experts on 18 sites and the data of objective geographic features of the 18 sites were examined. | Taiwan (Asia) | Site selection | Environment | Reliability, validity | T | C | ||
| Bazley, Vink, Montgomery, and Hedge [45] | 2016 | To assess the comfort of outpatients in the waiting areas of medical centers and the impact of appropriate placement of Feng Shui elements. | 81 participants from 3 different medical centers | Survey | Waiting areas designed by Feng Shui experts were rated as the most comfortable, followed by doctor-designed waiting areas, while traditional or conventional waiting areas were rated as the least comfortable. | Outpatients' comfort after they woke up, arrived at the waiting areas, and saw doctors were compared. | United States (North America) | Concepts and attitudes | Medicine | Validity | W | E | ||
| Yao, Yan, and Wu [46] | 2016 | To analyze, on the basis of Feng Shui and psychological field theories, the village layout, landscape element functions, and spatial structure features of a village in order to improve the traditional landscape structure analysis. | Chengkan village, Anhui province | Survey | The 3D landscape indices were an improvement on the traditional 2D landscape indices in terms of area, perimeter, shape, and diversity. 3D landscape indices showed that Chengkan village was an ideal ecosystem model. | By calculating the surface area and perimeter of landscape patches instead of the 2D landscape features, the village landscape pattern was quantitatively analyzed. | China (Asia) | Environmental planning and design | Ecology | WF | C | |||
| Charles, Glover, Bauchmüller, andWood [47] | 2017 | To investigate the relationship between caregivers' emotions and surrounding environments by applying Feng Shui. | 108 caregivers in Yorkshire | Wind group, water group, bed space, and cake consumption | Caregivers not assigned to Feng Shui bed space | Field experiment | The layout, based on Feng Shui principles, of the bed space in the critical care unit did not improve the emotional well-being of the caregivers. | Following Ba Gua [八卦] principles, bed space in the critical care unit was classified into either wind or water orientation. Caregivers who were not assigned to the beds of the two groups served as the control group. The influence of cake consumption on the emotions of caregivers was also analyzed as a secondary outcome in the two-week experiment. | United Kingdom (Europe) | Concepts and attitudes | Medicine | Validity | W | E |
| Chu, Hsu, and Hsieh [48] | 2017 | To investigate through scientific analysis whether ancient Feng Shui designs lead to good living environments. | Huazhai village, Wanan Island, Penghu | Survey | Topography and water were the basis of Feng Shui principles used to identify living places in order to improve the quality of living environments. Buildings should be planned according to microtopography, regional needs, and the wind field features to create a sustainable living environment that could adapt to the climate. | A computer model was used to restore early conditions of the village. Then CFD was used to simulate the long-term wind field to analyze the impact of the surrounding environment on village wind fields. | Taiwan (Asia) | Site selection | Environment | Validity | W | E | ||
| Wang and Zhang [49] | 2018 | To discuss the scientific methods for applying geomantic layout to the outdoor wind environment of green buildings. | Tianjin | Survey | Geomantic layout was an important reference for the creation of outdoor wind environments of green buildings. Application strategies should combine practical analysis, water and greenery analysis, and other design elements. | Based on the theories of situation [形勢] and “protection from the wind and gathering Qi” of the geomancy, a 3D computer model was created using AutoCAD and Sketchup. Then CFD was used to simulate the wind environments during summer and winter. | China (Asia) | Site selection | Environment | Validity | WF | C | ||
| Lu [50] | 2018 | To investigate the relationship between the orientation of apartments and their prices in Shanghai. | 2996 items of data from the real estate database from December 2013 to May 2014 | Survey | South-facing houses had an increase in real estate prices by an average of 14%. Prices of houses with views of landmark buildings in Shanghai had an increase of 5.7%. When the houses also faced south, the price increased an additional 4.2%. The problem of dust may reduce the prices of south-facing houses, while PM2.5 had little effect. | A comprehensive database (apartment attributes, air quality, and urban spatial structure) was used to analyze the relationship between the surrounding environments and the real estate prices in Shanghai. | China (Asia) | Residence | Environment | W | E | |||
| Almodovar-Melendo and Cabeza-Lainez [51] | 2018 | To investigate the environmental features that formed Chinese historical architectural patterns from a cultural perspective. | Traditional urban layout in Beijing | Survey | Facing south was the only orientation that had the advantage of more sunshine in winter than in summer. Because of the hot summer afternoon sunlight, the most favorable orientation was not facing the south; instead, it was slightly to the southeast. | Microclimatic factors and comfort conditions of the urban layout in Beijing were analyzed. | China (Asia) | Environmental planning and design | Environment | Validity | W | E | ||
| Wang, Hong, and Abdul-Rahman [52] | 2018 | To investigate whether the layout of a bedroom designed by architects was similar to that accorded with Feng Shui principles. | 16 architects of different cultural backgrounds | Survey | The major consideration of a bedroom was bed arrangement. Most bedroom designs were associated with good Feng Shui conditions. | Semi-structured interviews were used to collect architects' perspectives and experiences regarding bedroom interiors and layouts. | Residence | Environment | Reliability | W | E | |||
| Sia, Yew, and Siew [53] | 2018 | To examine the influence of Feng Shui factors on the decisions of Chinese house-buyers in Malaysia. | 160 respondents from two areas (Kuala Lumpur and Sandakan) in Malaysia. | Survey | Regardless of geographical differences, respondents in Kuala Lumpur and Sandakan shared very similar perspectives on Feng Shui. Feng Shui factors, as well as house price and location influenced house-buyers’ decisions. | A questionnaire survey on 24 Feng Shui principles was conducted with respondents from two different locations. The collected data were statistically analyzed. | Malaysia (Asia) | Concepts and attitudes | Environment | S | E | |||
| Pheng, Gao, and Ang [54] | 2018 | To study whether the application of Feng Shui principles in building design affected cleaning activities during facility operations and maintenance. | 2 Feng Shui practitioners, 1 facility manager, and 1 facility manager and Feng Shui practitioner | Survey | All 15 Feng Shui principles significantly affected 3 types of facility management activities (cleaning of building exterior, daily external site/extensive cleaning, and road and pavement cleaning). | A questionnaire survey was conducted to verify the effectiveness of Feng Shui principles and facility operations and maintenance principles. Three groups of experts were interviewed to examine the questionnaire results. | Singapore (Asia) | Residence | Environment | Validity | S | E | ||
| Song, Wilhelmsson, and Zheng [55] | 2019 | To investigate the impact of different orientations of houses on buyers' willingness to buy in Beijing. | 63,306 resale apartment transactions in 10 districts in Beijing from October 2011 to September 2014 recorded in the real estate database | Survey | The average selling price of apartments facing south was 7.8% higher than those facing west. The price of apartments in the old town was more sensitive to orientation than that of apartments in other areas. | The Ordinary Least Squares Model and the Spatial Econometric Model were used to estimate the effect of attributes of structure, location, and neighborhood on the housing price per square meter. | China (Asia) | Concepts and attitudes | Environment | W | E | |||
| Wang, Liu, Dai, Cao, Wang, and Wang [56] | 2019 | To investigate the relationship between the genetic diversity of an endangered species, Erythrophleum fordii, in Feng Shui forests and its population gene flow. | 1061 plants of Erythrophleum fordii in 8 Feng Shui forests in Guangzhou | Survey | Erythrophleum fordii was not going to be extinct in the near future. Because of the lack of suitable habitat for regeneration, however, a large and continuous population was required to ensure great gene flow to maintain species sustainability. | Samples were taken from 8 Feng Shui forests in Guangzhou, and were compared with samples from protected natural areas. | China (Asia) | Environmental planning and design | Ecology | W | E | |||
| Liu, Wang, Gu, Liu, and Zhou [57] | 2019 | To investigate the interactive effect of water and mountain landscapes of Feng Shui theory to assess the impact of landscapes on housing prices. | 14,789 items of apartment transaction data in downtown Chongqing from 2015 to 2017 | Survey | The prices of the houses with mountain-water interactive landscapes increased by 21.38%, more than those of houses with either mountain or water landscapes. Prices of houses near mountain-water interactive landscapes also increased by 15.01%, because of the spillover effect. | The Hedonic Price Model was used to assess the impact of mountain-water landscapes on housing prices. | China (Asia) | Site selection | Environment | W | E | |||
| Choe and Han [58] | 2019 | To examine the consistency and feasibility of the application of Feng Shui principles to modern architecture from a methodological perspective with the purpose of providing a scientific point of view. | 5 traditional houses | Survey | Topographic elements had protective effects on climate. Feng Shui concepts could be applied to modern building systems. | 3D digital maps were used to simulate real situations, which enabled the assessment of Feng Shui theory and ecological architecture. | South Korea (Asia) | Environmental planning and design | Environment | Validity | S | E |
*Web of Science (W), Taiwan Periodical Literature (T), WANFANG DATA (WF), and SCOPUS (S).
**English (E), Chinese (C).
***Continent in parentheses.