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. 2023 Sep 2;9(9):e19571. doi: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e19571

Table 3.

System GMM estimates of the Effects of sanctions on economic growth (only developed countries).


Dependent variable: Real GDP per capita growth
Independent Variables (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11)
Lagged GDP Per Capita 0.967*** 0.967*** 0.974*** 0.974*** 0.974*** 0.979*** 0.973*** 0.943*** 0.601*** 0.667*** 0.534***
(0.0380) (0.0329) (0.0308) (0.0406) (0.0308) (0.0231) (0.0225) (0.0490) (0.175) (0.129) (0.191)
Capital formation 0.0240 0.0230 0.0133 0.0233 0.0133 0.0112 0.0150 0.00355 0.133*** 0.158*** 0.140***
(0.0203) (0.0181) (0.0141) (0.0150) (0.0141) (0.0151) (0.0164) (0.0218) (0.0449) (0.0473) (0.0428)
Trade openness 7.22e-05 7.86e-05 0.000108 4.66e-05 0.000108 8.13e-05 6.79e-05 0.000382 0.000215 0.000192 1.58e-05
(0.000129) (0.000132) (0.000106) (0.000148) (0.000106) (0.000156) (0.000170) (0.000341) (0.000251) (0.000266) (0.000260)
Human capital index 0.0119*** 0.0127*** 0 0 0 0.0108*** 0.0112 0.00483 0 0 0
(0.00262) (0.00322) (0) (0) (0) (0.00251) (0.0194) (0.0284) (0) (0) (0)
Government spending −0.0215 −0.0209 −0.0134 −0.0216 −0.0134 −0.0121 −0.0148 −0.00256 0.136 0.124 0.237*
(0.0196) (0.0173) (0.0157) (0.0155) (0.0157) (0.0156) (0.0150) (0.0202) (0.102) (0.0768) (0.128)
Polity2 0.00514 0.00189 −0.00567 0.0163 −0.00567 0.00378 −0.00105 0.00835 0.000355 −0.000503 0.0183
(0.0212) (0.0310) (0.0292) (0.0223) (0.0292) (0.0235) (0.0263) (0.0247) (0.0219) (0.0230) (0.0231)
Economic institutions 0.00274 0.00399** 0.00272* 0.00291** 0.00272* 0.00183 0.00445 0.00363 −0.000690 −0.000499 0.00226
(0.00210) (0.00192) (0.00160) (0.00113) (0.00160) (0.00213) (0.00296) (0.00225) (0.00197) (0.00136) (0.00241)
Sanctions −0.0387
(0.0265)
Extensive sanctions −0.0640*
(0.0341)
Extensive sanctions −0.00625
(0.0222)
Limited sanctions −0.00942
(0.0144)
Limited sanctions −0.00625
(0.0222)
Multilateral sanctions −0.207*
(0.109)
Unilateral sanctions −0.00428
(0.0108)
Sanctions duration 1.11e-05
(0.00113)
Import Restriction 0.00492
(0.00637)
Export Restriction −0.0257*
(0.0155)
Asset Freeze 0.00866
(0.0210)
Constant 0.285 0.297 0.281 0.218 0.281 0.246 0.274 0.543 −2.548* −3.568** −4.560**
(0.349) (0.252) (0.275) (0.333) (0.275) (0.219) (0.186) (0.374) (1.449) (1.473) (1.960)
Observations 1104 1104 1104 1104 1104 1104 1104 1104 811 811 811
Number of countries 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23 23
Number of instruments 170 170 170 170 170 170 170 170 170 170 170
AR (2) test P-value 0.321 0.124 0.421 0.135 0.237 0.535 0.232 0.452 0.257 0.161 0.115
Hansen test P-value 0.326 0.292 0.399 0.430 0.425 0.501 0.612 0.413 0.352 0.296 0.384
Sargan test P-value 0.763 0.619 0.724 0.674 0.826 0.792 0.728 0.802 0.755 0.696 0.712

Note: Standard errors in parentheses, ***, ** and * denote 1%, 5% and 10% level of significance respectively.