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. 2023 Sep 2;9(9):e19571. doi: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e19571

Table 4.

System GMM estimates of the Effects of sanctions on economic growth (only Developing countries).


Dependent variable: Real GDP per capita growth
Independent Variables (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11)
Lagged GDP Per Capita 0.983*** 0.984*** 0.983*** 0.983*** 0.983*** 0.984*** 0.983*** 0.983*** 0.988*** 0.987*** 0.988***
(0.000577) (0.000593) (0.000545) (0.000478) (0.000681) (0.000611) (0.000689) (0.000718) (0.000792) (0.000799) (0.000842)
Capital formation 0.000710*** 0.000642*** 0.000699*** 0.000607*** 0.000718*** 0.000639*** 0.000876*** 0.000648*** 0.0118*** 0.0115*** 0.0116***
(7.34e-05) (6.12e-05) (8.23e-05) (0.000108) (7.08e-05) (6.65e-05) (9.38e-05) (9.24e-05) (0.000236) (0.000295) (0.000228)
Trade openness 0.000339*** 0.000351*** 0.000339*** 0.000338*** 0.000343*** 0.000351*** 0.000289*** 0.000353*** 0.000561*** 0.000576*** 0.000586***
(1.65e-05) (1.34e-05) (1.82e-05) (1.78e-05) (1.91e-05) (1.42e-05) (2.48e-05) (2.17e-05) (1.69e-05) (1.10e-05) (1.00e-05)
Human capital index 0.00242 0.00387*** 0.00278 0.00225* 0.00255* 0.00395** 0.00430*** 0.00299*** −0.0151*** −0.0121** −0.0188***
(0.00180) (0.00136) (0.00170) (0.00119) (0.00144) (0.00181) (0.00115) (0.00115) (0.00433) (0.00501) (0.00335)
Government spending 0.00271*** 0.00280*** 0.00274*** 0.00285*** 0.00270*** 0.00281*** 0.00276*** 0.00274*** −0.0126*** −0.0126*** −0.0129***
(8.21e-05) (8.91e-05) (0.000137) (0.000126) (0.000142) (0.000105) (0.000143) (0.000107) (0.000232) (0.000256) (0.000212)
Polity2 −0.0429*** −0.0430*** −0.0444*** −0.0446*** −0.0446*** −0.0429*** −0.0387*** −0.0438*** 0.0823*** 0.0813*** 0.0870***
(0.00263) (0.00234) (0.00299) (0.00273) (0.00297) (0.00246) (0.00253) (0.00274) (0.00350) (0.00330) (0.00450)
Economic institutions 0.0166*** 0.0157*** 0.0168*** 0.0171*** 0.0171*** 0.0157*** 0.0183*** 0.0172*** 0.0223*** 0.0219*** 0.0221***
(0.000711) (0.000791) (0.00124) (0.000912) (0.00126) (0.000804) (0.00119) (0.00114) (0.000875) (0.000896) (0.000959)
Sanctions 0.0111***
(0.00149)
Imposed sanctions 0.0359***
(0.00202)
Extensive sanctions
Limited sanctions −0.0193***
(0.00116)
Multilateral sanctions 5.071
(7.569)
Unilateral sanctions 0.0358***
(0.00205)
US sanctions 0.0751***
(0.00273)
Sanctions duration −0.000109
(9.93e-05)
Import Restriction −0.0392***
(0.00785)
Export Restriction 0.00148
(0.00699)
Asset Freeze 0.0564***
(0.00865)
Constant 0.0555*** 0.0515*** 0.0591*** 0.0600*** 0.0605*** 0.0514*** 0.0470*** 0.0577*** 0.0101** 0.0148*** 0.00923*
(0.00452) (0.00412) (0.00447) (0.00397) (0.00478) (0.00450) (0.00556) (0.00547) (0.00476) (0.00458) (0.00536)
Observations 5424 5424 5424 5424 5424 5424 5424 5424 5424 5424 5424
Number of countries 113 113 113 113 113 113 113 113 113 113 113
Number of instruments 170 170 170 170 170 170 170 170 170 170 170
AR (2) test P-value 0.506 0.477 0.480 0.482 0.477 0.497 0.473 0.457 0.428 0.468 0.493
Hansen test P-value 0.435 0.438 0.453 0.431 0.438 0.688 0.431 0.442 0.452 0.422 0.432
Sargan test P-value 0.999 0.956 0.999 0.999 0.987 0.999 0.999 0.940 0.936 0.996 0.978

Note: Standard errors in parentheses, ***, ** and * denote 1%, 5% and 10% level of significance respectively.