Table 4.

Principal components of rainfed smallholder farmers' adaptation response.

Adaptation strategies	Components (factors)						Communalities (%)
	Agronomic practice (1)	Soil/water management practice (2)	Conservation agricultural practice (3)	Smart farming/cropping decision (4)	Livelihood diversification (5)	Use of IKP (6)
Replanting or resowing	0.86						78
Crop rotation	0.785						70
Row planting	0.764						63
Use of indigenous knowledge and practices	0.612						56
Use of improved varieties	0.601						58
Use of fertilizer, chemicals, and pesticides	0.592						52
Crop diversification	0.503						73
Double ploughing		−0.675					63
Mulching		0.775					72
Farmer managed natural regeneration		0.571					62
Migration		−0.554					56
Intercropping		0.508					54
Village savings and loans		−0.402					37
Mixed farming			0.721				64
Planting of trees (Afforestation)			0.638				54
Home or backyard garden			0.559				57
Use of compost and manure			0.541				61
Mixed cropping			0.324				28
Cultivating both low and high lands				−0.708			59
Early burning and creation of fire-belts				0.652			58
Planting early, medium, and long duration varieties				−0.527			61
Carpentry					0.845		76
Masonry					0.776		68
Creating farm drainage systems						−0.667	69
Use of indigenous seeds						−0.533	59
Eigenvalues (%)	5.042	2.932	2.043	1.846	1.734	1.497
Explained variance (%)	14.005	8.145	5.674	5.129	4.815	4.159

Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis (PCA); Rotation method: VARIMAX with Kaiser Normalisation; Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy (0.702, chi-square = 2403.356, Sig = 0.0001). PCs with factor loadings of less than 0.30 were not considered.

Source: Author's construct (2022)