Table 1.

A summary of revetment damage due to wave run-up and overtopping.

Study area	Consequences	References
North Carolina	Bulkhead or similar vertical-faced concrete revetments result in large amount of wave overtopping. Bulkhead maintenance often includes backfilling and repairment of revetment crest.	[6]
South Carolina	Most of the revetments in the study area were overtopped by storm surges and waves, causing 24% of revetments to be destroyed, 68% damaged	[64]
North Carolina	Hurricane Irene (in 2011), and Arthur (in 2014) damaged bulkheads or vertical-faced concrete revetments. The bulkheads are not living up to the expectation of superior durability or effectiveness during hurricanes, and are more costly to maintain than ripraps.	[63]
Shizuoka, Japan	Typhoon Hagibis's intensive landfall generated the highest-level storm surges at the head of Tokyo Bay. The high water levels predominantly caused by energetic swells were comparable with the crest heights of defense structures. The intensive typhoon did not trigger catastrophic damage, but caused minor flooding due to wave overtopping.	[65]