Table 2.
Association of languages spoken with overall cognitive function, verbal fluency, and memory overall, in people living in the community in Zurich and Ticino, and in long-term care homes in Ticino – the SwissDEM study
| Overall | Living in LTC homes in Ticino | Living in the community in Ticino | Living in the community in Zurich | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| B (95% CI); p-value | ß | B (95% CI); p-value | ß | B (95% CI); p-value | ß | B (95% CI); p-value | ß | |
| Overall cognitive performance | ||||||||
| Unadjusted model | ||||||||
| Languages spoken | 1.45 (1.22; 1.69); <0.001 | 0.34 | 0.37 (-0.65; 1.39); 0.474 | 0.05 | 0.57 (0.26; 0.87); <0.001 | 0.18 | 0.97 (0.63; 1.31); <0.001 | 0.21 |
| F | (1,1221) = 161.79; <0.001 | (1,174) = 0.514; 0.474 | (1,383) = 13.485; <0.001 | (1,660) = 14.729; <0.001 | ||||
| Adjusted R2 | 0.116 | -0.003 | 0.031 | 0.020 | ||||
| Adjusted model | ||||||||
| Languages spoken | 0.37 (0.20; 0.54); <0.001 | 0.09 | 0.41 (-0.59; 1.412); 0.416 | 0.06 | 0.46 (0.17; 0.74); 0.002 | 0.15 | 0.15 (0.07; 0.23); <0.001 | 0.14 |
| Age | -0.18 (-0.21; -0.15); <0.001 | -0.26 | -0.22 (-0.38; -0.07); 0.006 | -0.21 | -0.19 (-0.24; -0.14); <0.001 | -0.34 | -0.06 (-0.07; -0.04); <0.001 | -0.25 |
| Gender | -0.19 (-0.60; 0.22); 0.35 | -0.02 | 0.62 (-1.97; 3.22); 0.637 | 0.04 | 0.17 (-0.51; 0.84); 0.626 | 0.02 | 0.09 (-0.10; 0.29); 0.350 | -0.04 |
| Sample | 3.94 (3.59; 4.29); <0.001 | 0.53 | ||||||
| F | (4, 1218) = 398.74; <0.001 | (3, 172) = 2.795; 0.042 | (3,381) = 22.437; <0.001 | (3,658) = 21.121; <0.001 | ||||
| Adjusted R2 | 0.566 | 0.030 | 0.143 | 0.082 | ||||
| Verbal fluency | ||||||||
| Unadjusted model | ||||||||
| Languages spoken | 2.78 (1.94; 2.61); <0.001 | 0.36 | 0.20 (-0.49; 0.90); 0.565 | 0.04 | 0.83 (0.30; 1.40); 0.002 | 0.16 | 0.84 (0.48; 1.20); <0.001 | 0.18 |
| F | (1,1221) = 178.550; <0.001 | (1, 174) = 0.333; 0.565 | (1, 383) = 9.418; 0.002 | (1,660) = 21.121; <0.001 | ||||
| Adjusted R2 | 0.127 | -0.004 | 0.021 | 0.030 | ||||
| Adjusted model | ||||||||
| Languages spoken | 0.77 (0.50; 1.04); <0.001 | 0.12 | 0.24 (-0.45; 0.93); 0.494 | 0.05 | 0.64 (0.14; 1.14); 0.012 | 0.12 | 0.81 (0.46; 1.16); <0.001 | 0.17 |
| Age | -0.28 (-0.33; -0.24); <0.001 | -0.28 | -0.13 (-0.24; -0.02); 0.020 | -0.18 | -0.32 (-0.40; -0.23); <0.001 | -0.33 | -0.24 (-0.31; -0.16); <0.001 | -0.24 |
| Gender | -0.17 (-0.83; 0.48); 0.600 | -0.01 | -0.20 (-1.99; 1.549); 0.828 | − 0.02 | -0.93 (-2.11; 0.24): 0.119 | -0.07 | 0.64 (-0.23; 1.51); 0.151 | 0.05 |
| Sample | 5.25 (4.69; 5.81); <0.001 | -0.47 | ||||||
| F | (4, 1218) = 328.983; <0.001 | (3, 172) = 2.012; 0.114 | (3, 381) = 20.864; <0.001 | (3,658) = 22.454; <0.001 | ||||
| Adjusted R2 | 0.518 | 0.017 | 0.134 | 0.089 | ||||
| Immediate and delayed memory | ||||||||
| Unadjusted model | ||||||||
| Languages spoken | 2.88 (2.51; 3.24); <0.001 | 0.41 | 0.34 (-0.45; 1.14); 0.396 | 0.06 | 1.52 (0.98; 2.06); <0.001 | 0.27 | 0.97 (0.63; 1.31); <0.001 | 0.21 |
| F | (1,1221) = 240.304; <0.001 | (1,174) = 0.724; 0.396 | (1,383) = 30.253; <0.001 | (1,660) = 30.888; <0.001 | ||||
| Adjusted R2 | 0.164 | -0.002 | 0.071 | 0.043 | ||||
| Adjusted model | ||||||||
| Languages spoken | 1.06 (0.80; 1.32) < 0.001 | 0.15 | 0.37 (-0.41; 1.16); 0.346 | 0.07 | 1.31 (0.80; 1.82); <0.001 | 0.23 | 0.94 (0.63; 1.31); <0.001 | 0.21 |
| Age | -0.30 (-0.35; -0.26) < 0.001 | -0.27 | -0.18 (-0.30; -0.05); 0.005 | -0.21 | -0.34 (-0.43; -0.25); <0.001 | -0.34 | -0.24 (-0.31; -0.18); <0.001 | -0.26 |
| Gender | 1.84 (1.20; 2.47) < 0.001 | 0.1 | 0.63 (-1.40; 2.65); 0.542 | -0.05 | 0.21 (0.02; 2.41); 0.05 | 0.09 | -0.03 (-0.30; 0.48); 0.851 | -0.24 |
| Sample | -6.98 (6.44; 7.53) < 0.001 | 0.56 | ||||||
| F | (4, 1218) = 524.575; <0.001 | (3, 172) = 2.933; 0.035 | (3,381) = 31.163; <0.001 | (3,658) = 46.442; <0.001 | ||||
| Adjusted R2 | 0.632 | 0.032 | 0.191 | 0.171 | ||||
Adjusted for age and sex. Note: ß = Standardized regression coefficient. SE, standard error; 95% CI, confidence intervals with lower and upper limits. LTC = Long term care. Gender 1 = male, 2 = female; sample 1 = LTC homes, 2 = people living in the community in Ticino and 3 = people living in the community in Zurich