Table 1.

Parameter values used across all simulations

Parameter	Description	Model(s)	Value	Units
$\eta$	Drag coefficient	All	1.0	CM h${}^{-1}$
$\mathrm{\Delta }t$	Time step	All	0.001	h
$\mu$	Elastic interaction constant	OS	50.0	CM h${}^{-2}$
$R_{\text{mat}}$	Mature cell radius	OS	0.5	CD
$\rho$	Decay in attractive force	OS	5.0	–
$r_{\text{max}}^{\text{(OSR)}}$	Force cut-off length	OS (repulsion)	1.0	CD
$r_{\text{max}}^{\text{(OSS)}}$	Force cut-off length	OS (short-range)	1.5	CD
$r_{\text{max}}^{\text{(OSL)}}$	Force cut-off length	OS (long-range)	2.0	CD
$\kappa$	Spring constant	VT	50.0	CM h${}^{-2}$
$r_{\text{max}}^{\text{(VTB)}}$	Force cut-off length	VT (bounded)	1.5	CD
$A_{\text{min}}^{\text{(VTG)}}$	Area threshold for ghost node removal	VT (ghosts)	0.4	CD${}^2$
$\alpha$	Area deformation coefficient	VM	50.0	CM h${}^{-2}$ CD${}^{-2}$
$\beta$	Membrane tension coefficient	VM	1.0	CM h${}^{-2}$
$A_{\text{target}}$	Cell target area	VM	Varies	CD${}^2$
${\gamma }_{\text{cell,cell}}$	Cell-cell adhesion coefficient for cells of the same type	VM	1.0	CM CD h${}^{-2}$
${\gamma }_{\text{cell,boundary}}$	Cell-boundary adhesion coefficient	VM	2.0	CM CD h${}^{-2}$
$d_r$	Cell rearrangement threshold	VM	0.01	CD
$A_{\text{min}}$	Cell volume removal threshold	VM	0.001	CD${}^2$
$d_{\text{max}}^{(\text{VMC})}$	Boundary node removal threshold	VM (curved)	0.1	CD
$d_{\text{min}}^{(\text{VMC})}$	Boundary node addition threshold	VM (curved)	0.025	CD

Parameter values sourced from Pathmanathan et al. (2009) and Fletcher et al. (2013), except for boundary specific values, rearrangement thresholds and adhesion between cells and free space in the VM