Fig. 19.
A The key elements within the cancerous tumor environment, focusing on how immune cells are influenced. It highlights the role of MDSCs (myeloid-derived suppressor cells) and Tregs (regulatory CD4 + T cells) in shaping the immune cell composition within this environment. Reprint from [268] with a permission from Springer Nature. B The Cancer Microenvironment. The physical and chemical characteristics of the cancer microenvironment, such as oxygen levels, pH, and reactive oxygen species (ROS), have an impact on both cancer and immune cells. M2 refers to M2-type macrophages, while VEGF denotes vascular endothelial growth factor. Reprint from [244] with a permission from Springer Nature