Table 1.

Comparison of nanocarrier types for cancer therapy

Nanocarrier Type	Size Range	Surface Charge	Drug Payload Capacity	Targeting Mechanism	Biodegradability	Description	Novelty	Advantages	Disadvantages	Limitations/Challenges	References
Liposomes	50–200 nm	Neutral	Low–High	Passive/Active	Biodegradable	Spherical structures composed of a lipid bilayer enclosing an aqueous core	First-generation nanocarriers for drug delivery, used in clinical practice	Good biocompatibility, low immunogenicity, versatility in drug loading and targeting	Short circulation time, potential drug leakage, lack of tumor specificity	Limited drug payload capacity, challenges in scaling up production, difficulty in achieving controlled drug release in vivo	[13]
Polymeric nanoparticles	10–200 nm	Variable	Low–High	Passive/Active	Biodegradable	Solid particles made of synthetic or natural polymers	Wide range of materials and formulations, suitable for various administration routes	High drug loading capacity, stable in circulation, tunable surface properties	Potential toxicity, burst release of drug, batch-to-batch variation, difficulty in achieving targeted drug delivery to tumors	Challenges in achieving controlled release, low targeting efficiency, limited biocompatibility of some materials	[14, 15]
Dendrimers	1–10 nm	Variable	Low-Moderate	Passive/Active	Non-biodegradable	Branched, highly branched or spherical molecules with defined size and shape	Highly customizable, multivalent surface chemistry, high drug loading capacity	High biotoxicity, low biodegradability, challenges in scaling up production	Limited blood circulation time, potential renal toxicity, difficulty in achieving targeted drug delivery to tumors	Limited targeting efficiency, challenges in achieving controlled release, potential immunogenicity	[15]
Gold nanoparticles	1–100 nm	Neutral	Low-Moderate	Passive/Active	Non-biodegradable	Spherical or rod-shaped particles made of gold	Excellent biocompatibility, high surface plasmon resonance effect, stability in biological fluids	Low drug loading capacity, limited tumor penetration, challenges in scaling up production	Potential toxicity, limited targeting efficiency, difficulty in achieving controlled drug release in vivo	Limited biocompatibility of some surface modifications, potential immunogenicity	[16, 17]
Carbon nanotubes	1–100 nm	Negative	Low–High	Passive/Active	Non-biodegradable	Hollow cylindrical structures made of carbon atoms	High aspect ratio, high drug loading capacity, potential for multi-functionalization	High toxicity, limited biocompatibility, challenges in achieving controlled release	Limited blood circulation time, potential clearance by the reticuloendothelial system, difficulty in achieving targeted drug delivery to tumors	Potential immunogenicity, difficulty in scaling up production	[18, 19]
Iron oxide nanoparticles	5–100 nm	Negative	Low-Moderate	Passive/Active	Biodegradable	Magnetic particles made of iron oxide	High targeting specificity, potential for MRI imaging and magnetic hyperthermia	Low drug loading capacity, limited blood circulation time, challenges in achieving controlled release	Potential toxicity, limited tumor penetration, difficulty in scaling up production	Potential immunogenicity, low biocompatibility of some surface modifications	[20]
Quantum dots	1–10 nm	Negative	Low-Moderate	Passive/Active	Non-biodegradable	Semiconductor nanocrystals	High brightness, tunable emission spectrum, potential for multiplexed imaging	High toxicity, potential for heavy metal leaching, challenges in achieving targeted drug delivery	Limited blood circulation time, potential clearance by the reticuloendothelial system, difficulty in scaling up production	Potential immunogenicity, limited tumor specificity	[21]
Silica nanoparticles	10–500 nm	Negative	Low–High	Passive/Active	Biodegradable	Solid particles made of silica	High drug loading capacity, good stability, tunable surface properties	Potential toxicity, limited blood circulation time, difficulty in achieving targeted drug delivery to tumors	Limited biocompatibility, challenges in achieving controlled release	Potential immunogenicity, limited tumor specificity	[22]
Mesoporous silica nanoparticles	20–200 nm	Negative	Low–High	Passive/Active	Biodegradable	Porous particles made of silica	High surface area, high drug loading capacity, tunable pore size and surface chemistry	Potential toxicity, limited blood circulation time, difficulty in achieving controlled drug release in vivo	Limited biocompatibility, challenges in achieving targeted drug delivery to tumors	Potential immunogenicity, limited tumor specificity	[23]
Lipid-nucleic acid nanoparticles	50–200 nm	Neutral	Low-Moderate	Active	Biodegradable	Nanoparticles made of lipids and nucleic acids	Suitable for nucleic acid delivery, good biocompatibility, low toxicity	Limited drug loading capacity, potential instability, challenges in achieving efficient delivery	Potential immunogenicity, limited blood circulation time	Limited targeting efficiency, difficulty in scaling up production	[24, 25]
Protein nanoparticles	2–200 nm	Variable	Low-Moderate	Passive/Active	Biodegradable	Nanoparticles made of proteins or peptides	Good biocompatibility, low toxicity, potential for targeted delivery	Limited drug loading capacity, challenges in achieving efficient drug release in vivo	Potential immunogenicity, limited stability, limited blood circulation time	Limited targeting efficiency, difficulty in scaling up production	[26, 27]
Inorganic–organic hybrid nanoparticles	10–200 nm	Variable	Low–High	Passive/Active	Biodegradable	Nanoparticles made of a combination of inorganic and organic components	Highly customizable, multifunctional, high drug loading capacity	Potential toxicity, limited blood circulation time, challenges in achieving controlled drug release in vivo	Limited biocompatibility, difficulty in achieving efficient targeting	Potential immunogenicity, limited tumor specificity	[28]
Metal–organic frameworks	10–500 nm	Variable	Low–High	Passive/Active	Biodegradable	Porous crystalline materials made of metal ions and organic ligands	Highly customizable, tunable pore size and surface chemistry, high drug loading capacity	Potential toxicity, limited blood circulation time, challenges in achieving efficient targeting	Limited biocompatibility, potential for drug leakage, limited stability	Potential immunogenicity, limited tumor specificity	[29]
Exosomes	30–150 nm	Negative	Low-Moderate	Active	Biodegradable	Small extracellular vesicles derived from cells	High biocompatibility, potential for targeted delivery, natural carriers of biological cargoes	Limited drug loading capacity, challenges in achieving efficient targeting, potential for premature drug release	Limited blood circulation time, difficulty in scaling up production	Limited targeting efficiency, potential for immune system recognition	[30]
Bacterial nanoparticles	10–300 nm	Negative	Low-Moderate	Active	Biodegradable	Nanoparticles produced by bacteria	High biocompatibility, potential for targeted delivery, easy to produce	Limited drug loading capacity, potential for immunogenicity, limited control over drug release	Limited blood circulation time, difficulty in achieving efficient targeting	Limited targeting efficiency, potential for clearance by the immune system	[31]
Polymeric micelles	10–100 nm	Variable	Low-Moderate	Passive/Active	Biodegradable	Spherical particles made of block copolymers	High drug loading capacity, good stability, easy to produce	Limited blood circulation time, challenges in achieving efficient targeting, potential for premature drug release	Limited biocompatibility, difficulty in achieving controlled release	Potential immunogenicity, limited tumor specificity	[32]