Table 14.
Influence of nanocarriers on immune response
| Nanocarrier Type | Immune Response Type | Immunomodulatory Mechanism | Dose–Response | Tumor Immune Microenvironment | Adverse Effects | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Lipid-based nanoparticles | Innate immune response | Activation of complement system, TLR signaling | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of myeloid cells, pro-inflammatory cytokine secretion | Cytokine release syndrome, infusion reactions | [57] |
| Polymeric nanoparticles | Adaptive immune response | Enhanced antigen presentation, T cell activation | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of CD8 + T cells, cytokine secretion | T cell exhaustion, autoimmune reactions | [90, 102] |
| Dendrimers | Innate and adaptive immune response | Toll-like receptor (TLR) agonist, enhanced antigen presentation | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of dendritic cells, T cells, and natural killer cells | Hemolysis, thrombocytopenia, anaphylaxis | [99] |
| Iron oxide nanoparticles | Innate immune response | Activation of macrophages, natural killer cells | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of myeloid cells, cytokine secretion | Iron overload, liver toxicity | [121] |
| Gold nanoparticles | Innate immune response | Activation of macrophages, inflammasome activation | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of myeloid cells, cytokine secretion | Thrombosis, renal toxicity | [121] |
| Quantum dots | Adaptive immune response | Enhanced antigen presentation, T cell activation | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of CD8 + T cells, cytokine secretion | Cytotoxicity, genotoxicity | [176] |
| Mesoporous silica nanoparticles | Innate immune response | TLR signaling, inflammasome activation | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of myeloid cells, pro-inflammatory cytokine secretion | Silica-induced lung fibrosis, inflammation | [23] |
| Protein-based nanoparticles | Adaptive immune response | Antigen presentation, T cell activation | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of CD8 + T cells, cytokine secretion | Immunogenicity, allergic reactions | [57] |
| Carbon-based nanoparticles | Innate immune response | Phagocytosis, cytokine secretion | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of myeloid cells, pro-inflammatory cytokine secretion | Pulmonary toxicity, fibrosis | [57] |
| Liposomes | Innate and adaptive immune response | Encapsulation of drugs, co-delivery of adjuvants | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of immune cells, cytokine secretion | Hypersensitivity reactions, phagocytosis by macrophages | [13] |
| Virus-like particles | Adaptive immune response | Antigen presentation, T cell activation | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of CD8 + T cells, cytokine secretion | Immunogenicity, autoimmunity | [274] |
| Nanogels | Innate immune response | Encapsulation of drugs, TLR signaling | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of myeloid cells, pro-inflammatory cytokine secretion | Cytotoxicity, renal toxicity | [275] |
| Nanodiamonds | Innate and adaptive immune response | Cytokine secretion, dendritic cell activation | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of immune cells, cytokine secretion | Pulmonary toxicity, genotoxicity | [238] |
| Magnetic nanoparticles | Innate immune response | Induction of heat shock proteins, activation of macrophages | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of myeloid cells, cytokine secretion | Magnetic field-induced tissue damage, cellular stress | [276] |
| Nanotubes | Adaptive immune response | Antigen presentation, T cell activation | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of CD8 + T cells, cytokine secretion | Cytotoxicity, genotoxicity | [18, 19] |
| Metal–organic frameworks | Innate immune response | TLR signaling, inflammasome activation | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of myeloid cells, pro-inflammatory cytokine secretion | Biodegradation products, metal toxicity | [101] |
| Polymer-lipid hybrid nanoparticles | Innate and adaptive immune response | Encapsulation of drugs, co-delivery of adjuvants | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of immune cells, cytokine secretion | Biocompatibility, stability | [57] |
| Exosomes | Innate and adaptive immune response | Encapsulation of drugs, co-delivery of adjuvants | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of immune cells, cytokine secretion | Immunogenicity, clearance rate | [30] |
| RNA nanoparticles | Innate and adaptive immune response | Antigen presentation, TLR signaling | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of immune cells, cytokine secretion | Immunogenicity, stability | [277] |
| Metal nanoparticles | Innate immune response | Activation of macrophages, inflammasome activation | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of myeloid cells, cytokine secretion | Biodegradation products, metal toxicity | [277] |
| Supramolecular nanoparticles | Innate and adaptive immune response | Encapsulation of drugs, co-delivery of adjuvants | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of immune cells, cytokine secretion | Biocompatibility, stability | [278] |
| Hydrogels | Innate immune response | Encapsulation of drugs, TLR signaling | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of myeloid cells, cytokine secretion | Biocompatibility, mechanical stability | [279] |
| Lipid-coated calcium phosphate nanoparticles | Adaptive immune response | Antigen presentation, T cell activation | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of CD8 + T cells, cytokine secretion | Immunogenicity, stability | [57] |
| Metallic oxide nanoparticles | Innate immune response | Activation of macrophages, inflammasome activation | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of myeloid cells, cytokine secretion | Biodegradation products, metal toxicity | [243] |
| Core–shell nanoparticles | Innate and adaptive immune response | Encapsulation of drugs, co-delivery of adjuvants | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of immune cells, cytokine secretion | Biocompatibility, stability | [243] |
| Janus nanoparticles | Innate and adaptive immune response | Encapsulation of drugs, co-delivery of adjuvants | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of immune cells, cytokine secretion | Biocompatibility, stability | [57] |
| Lipid-protein nanoparticles | Adaptive immune response | Antigen presentation, T cell activation | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of CD8 + T cells, cytokine secretion | Immunogenicity, stability | [57] |
| Layer-by-layer nanoparticles | Innate and adaptive immune response | Encapsulation of drugs, co-delivery of adjuvants | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of immune cells, cytokine secretion | Biocompatibility, stability | [99] |
| Polymeric micelles | Innate immune response | Encapsulation of drugs, TLR signaling | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of myeloid cells, cytokine secretion | Biocompatibility, stability | [90, 102] |
| Polymer vesicles | Innate and adaptive immune response | Encapsulation of drugs, co-delivery of adjuvants | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of immune cells, cytokine secretion | Biocompatibility, stability | [90, 102] |
| Plasmonic nanoparticles | Innate immune response | Activation of macrophages, inflammasome activation | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of myeloid cells, cytokine secretion | Thrombosis, renal toxicity | [280] |
| Protein-coated nanoparticles | Adaptive immune response | Antigen presentation, T cell activation | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of CD8 + T cells, cytokine secretion | Immunogenicity, stability | [100] |
| Silica nanoparticles | Innate and adaptive immune response | Encapsulation of drugs, co-delivery of adjuvants | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of immune cells, cytokine secretion | Silica-induced lung fibrosis, inflammation | [88] |
| Smart nanoparticles | Innate and adaptive immune response | Encapsulation of drugs, co-delivery of adjuvants | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of immune cells, cytokine secretion | Biocompatibility, stability | [281] |
| Supramolecular assemblies | Innate and adaptive immune response | Encapsulation of drugs, co-delivery of adjuvants | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of immune cells, cytokine secretion | Biocompatibility, stability | [282] |
| Theranostic nanoparticles | Innate and adaptive immune response | Encapsulation of drugs, co-delivery of imaging agents | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of immune cells, cytokine secretion | Biocompatibility, stability | [130] |
| Cell-derived nanoparticles | Innate and adaptive immune response | Encapsulation of drugs, co-delivery of adjuvants | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of immune cells, cytokine secretion | Immunogenicity, clearance rate | [196] |
| Multifunctional nanoparticles | Innate and adaptive immune response | Encapsulation of drugs, co-delivery of adjuvants | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of immune cells, cytokine secretion | Biocompatibility, stability | [18] |
| Carbon dots | Innate and adaptive immune response | Encapsulation of drugs, co-delivery of adjuvants | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of immune cells, cytokine secretion | Biocompatibility, stability | [18] |
| Exosome-mimetic nanoparticles | Innate and adaptive immune response | Encapsulation of drugs, co-delivery of adjuvants | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of immune cells, cytokine secretion | Biocompatibility, stability | [283] |
| Lipid-polymer hybrid nanoparticles | Innate and adaptive immune response | Encapsulation of drugs, co-delivery of adjuvants | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of immune cells, cytokine secretion | Biocompatibility, stability | [57] |
| Iron oxide nanoparticles | Innate immune response | Activation of macrophages, inflammasome activation | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of myeloid cells, cytokine secretion | Iron overload, oxidative stress | [121] |
| Gold nanoparticles | Innate immune response | Activation of macrophages, inflammasome activation | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of myeloid cells, cytokine secretion | Thrombosis, renal toxicity | [121] |
| Carbon nanotubes | Adaptive immune response | Antigen presentation, T cell activation | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of CD8 + T cells, cytokine secretion | Cytotoxicity, genotoxicity | [18] |
| Albumin nanoparticles | Innate and adaptive immune response | Encapsulation of drugs, co-delivery of adjuvants | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of immune cells, cytokine secretion | Biocompatibility, stability | [27] |
| Liposomes | Innate and adaptive immune response | Encapsulation of drugs, co-delivery of adjuvants | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of immune cells, cytokine secretion | Biocompatibility, stability | [13] |
| Solid lipid nanoparticles | Innate and adaptive immune response | Encapsulation of drugs, co-delivery of adjuvants | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of immune cells, cytokine secretion | Biocompatibility, stability | [57] |
| Graphene oxide nanoparticles | Innate immune response | Activation of macrophages, inflammasome activation | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of myeloid cells, cytokine secretion | Pulmonary toxicity, genotoxicity | [174] |
| Self-assembled nanoparticles | Innate and adaptive immune response | Encapsulation of drugs, co-delivery of adjuvants | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of immune cells, cytokine secretion | Biocompatibility, stability | [272] |
| Polymer-drug conjugates | Innate and adaptive immune response | Encapsulation of drugs, co-delivery of adjuvants | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of immune cells, cytokine secretion | Biocompatibility, stability | [90, 102] |
| Peptide-based nanoparticles | Innate and adaptive immune response | Encapsulation of drugs, co-delivery of adjuvants | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of immune cells, cytokine secretion | Biocompatibility, stability | [56] |
| Viral nanoparticles | Innate and adaptive immune response | Antigen presentation, T cell activation | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of CD8 + T cells, cytokine secretion | Immunogenicity, potential for viral replication | [109] |
| Hybrid nanoparticles | Innate and adaptive immune response | Encapsulation of drugs, co-delivery of adjuvants | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of immune cells, cytokine secretion | Biocompatibility, stability | [284] |
| Polyplexes | Innate and adaptive immune response | Encapsulation of nucleic acids, TLR signaling | Dose-dependent | Increased infiltration of immune cells, cytokine secretion | Biocompatibility, stability | [285] |