Table 3.
Linear mixed model (Model 1) was fitted to the average dwell times on Animate and Inanimate foveal interest areas (FIAs)—without audio markers—under the three different Viewing conditions (contextual information, External perspective, and internal perspective).
| Model 1: Effects of different viewing conditions and social cues on gaze patterns across visual artworks and complex images in healthy adults | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Effect | df | ChiSq | p | VS-MPR * | ||
| Viewing condition | 2, 21.68 | 5.453 | 0.012 | 6.899 | ||
| Foveal interest area (FIA) category | 1, 20.88 | 28.741 | < 0.001 | 1333.123 | ||
| Viewing condition * FIA category | 2, 20.66 | 9.820 | 0.001 | 53.007 | ||
| Fixed effect estimates | ||||||
| Term | Estimate | SE | df | t | p | VS-MPR * |
| (Intercept) | 1182.309 | 115.855 | 21.940 | 10.205 | < 0.001 | 2.055 × 10+7 |
| Reference viewing condition: internal perspective | ||||||
| Viewing condition: contextual information | −416.025 | 169.408 | 23.271 | −2.456 | 0.022 | 4.391 |
| Viewing condition: xternal perspective | −76.324 | 164.697 | 21.930 | −0.463 | 0.648 | 1.000 |
| Reference FIA category: inanimate | ||||||
| FIA category: animate | 498.940 | 93.068 | 20.884 | 5.361 | < 0.001 | 1333.125 |
| Interaction effects | ||||||
| Animate FIAs * Contextual information viewing condition | −510.802 | 139.196 | 21.809 | −3.670 | 0.001 | 40.980 |
| Animate FIAs * External perspective viewing condition | 22.479 | 132.343 | 20.511 | 0.170 | 0.867 | 1.000 |
| Estimated marginal means | ||||||
| 95% CI | ||||||
| Viewing Condition | Foveal interest area subcategory | Estimate | SE | Lower | Upper | |
| Contextual information | Animate | 754.423 | 349.593 | 69.233 | 1439.612 | |
| External perspective | Animate | 1627.405 | 323.435 | 993.483 | 2261.326 | |
| Internal perspective | Animate | 2661.922 | 274.834 | 2123.258 | 3200.586 | |
| Contextual information | Inanimate | 778.146 | 183.653 | 418.192 | 1138.099 | |
| External perspective | Inanimate | 584.566 | 175.287 | 241.010 | 928.122 | |
| Internal perspective | Inanimate | 687.395 | 175.208 | 343.993 | 1030.797 | |
Model terms tested with the Satterthwaite test method.
The following variable is used as a random effects grouping factor: “Image”.
Type III sum of squares.
*Vovk-Sellke maximum p-ratio: Based on a two-sided p-value, the maximum possible odds in favor of H1 over H0 equal 1/(-e p log(p)) for p ≤ 0.37 (Sellke et al., 2001).
The intercept corresponds to the (unweighted) grand mean; for each factor with k levels, k - 1 parameters are estimated with sum contrast coding. Consequently, the estimates cannot be directly mapped to factor levels. The estimated marginal means below provide estimates for each factor level/design cell and their differences.
Fixed effects were calculated for the “viewing condition” with 3 levels and the “FIA category” with 2 levels (Animate and Inanimate), with ‘Image' (N = 20) selected as a random effects grouping factor. The LMM random-effect structures for “Image” included the intercept and the random slopes for the factor “FIA category.” All random slopes involving “viewing condition” were automatically removed from the model by JASP, as the factor “Viewing condition” did not vary within the levels of random effects grouping factor “Image.” The dwell-time data that were included in the analysis were recorded between 750 and 20,000 ms after image presentation, reflecting the time window during which higher cortical processes are recruited in the image processing (Cela-Conde et al., 2013; Van Leeuwen et al., 2022). Estimated marginal means were calculated for the two FIA categories across the three viewing conditions. A control analysis found no main effects for age or sex, so the presented results were averaged across all research participants in the study (N = 37). Total number of observations: 12,617. The bold values indicate a statistically significant result, defined as a p value smaller than 0.05.