Table 2.
Characteristics of included studies.
| Author | Year | Country | Participants |
Tools |
Assessed skills |
|||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| No | % female | Specialty | Level / experience (%) | Intervention(s) | Control | Other | Technical | CanMEDSa | NOTSSa | |||
| Ahlborg [29] | 2013 | Sweden | 19 | NS | Obstetrics and Gynaecology | Not specified | VR trainer | No additional training | Tubal occlusions | – | – | |
| Akdemir [30] | 2014 | Turkey | 60 | 25 % | Gynaecology | PGY 1 and 2 | VR trainer | No additional training | Analogue box-trainer | Bilateral Tubal Ligation | – | (Decision making) |
| Araujo [31] | 2014 | Brazil | 14 | 14,3 % | Surgery | No experience with laparoscopic colectomy | VR trainer | No additional training | Laparoscopic skills | – | (Decision making) | |
| Borahay [32] | 2013 | USA | 16 | 83,3 % | Obstetrics and Gynaecology | 8 PGY 1 8 PGY 2 |
Robot trainer | Analogue box-trainer | Laparoscopic skills | – | – | |
| Brown [33] | 2017 | USA | 26 | NS | 10 General surgery, 7 Urology, 9 Obstetrics and Gynaecology |
8 PGY 1 (30,1 %) 5 PGY 2 (19,2 %) 6 PGY 3 (23,1 %) 5 PGY 4 (19,2 %) 2 PGY 5 (7,7 %) |
2 robot trainers | Basic robotic surgery skills | – | – | ||
| Camp [34] | 2016 | USA | 57 | NS | Orthopaedic surgery | 9 PGY 1 (15,8 %) 12 PGY 2 (21,1 %) 6 PGY 3 (10,6 %) 9 PGY 4 (15,8 %) 9 PGY 5 (15,8 %) |
VR trainer | No additional training | Cadaver training | Arthroscopy | – | (Decision making) |
| Cannon [35] | 2014 | USA | 48 | NS | Orthopaedic surgery | PGY 3 | VR trainer | No additional training | Arthroscopy | – | – | |
| Daly [36] | 2013 | USA | 21 | NS | Ophthalmology | PGY 2 | VR trainer | Wet lab training | Cataract surgery | – | – | |
| Dickerson [37] | 2019 | USA | 42 | 26,2 % | Orthopaedic surgery | PGY 1–5 (mean PGY 2.3–2.7) |
Post-op coaching session with POV-video of surgery | Post-op coaching session without POV-video of surgery | Intra-articular distal tibial fracture reduction | (Collaborator) | (Decision making) | |
| Fried [38] | 2010 | USA | 25 | NS | Ear Nose Throat surgery | PGY 1–2 | VR trainer | “Access to conventional material” | Endoscopic Sinus Surgery | (Communication and Teamwork) | ||
| Garfjeld Roberts [39] | 2019 | UK | 28 | 46,7 % | Trauma / orthopaedic surgery | 24 PGY 2 (80 %) 6 PGY 3 (20 %) |
Box trainer | “Normal deanery-provided training” | Knee arthroscopy | (Collaborator) | (Decision making) | |
| Graafland [40] | 2017 | Netherlands | 31 | 41.7 % | General surgery | 3 PGY 1 (9,7 %) 20 PGY 2 (64,5 %) 1 PGY 3 (3,2 %) |
Basic laparoscopic training course with serious game | Basic laparoscopic training course without serious game | Situational awareness in OR | (Communication and Teamwork) | ||
| Hauschild [41] | 2021 | USA | 38 | NS | Orthopaedic surgery | PGY 1–5 | VR trainer | Dry lab training | Shoulder arthroscopy | – | – | |
| Hooper [42] | 2019 | USA | 14 | 35.7 % | Orthopaedic surgery | PGY 1 | Immersive VR trainer | “Standard study materials” | Shoulder Arthroscopy | – | Situation awareness | |
| Hou [43] | 2018 | China | 10 | 40 % | NS | No experience | VR trainer | “Traditional teaching method” | Cervical pedicle screw placement | – | (Decision making) | |
| Huri [44] | 2020 | Turkey | 34 | 0 % | Orthopaedic surgery | NS | VR trainer | Cadaver training | Shoulder Arthroscopy | (Collaborator) | (Decision making) | |
| Jensen [45] | 2014 | Denmark | 30 | 64.3 % | Urology, General surgery, Cardiothoracic surgery, Orthopaedic surgery | NS | VR trainer | Analogue box trainer | Shoulder Arthroscopy | (Communication and Teamwork) | ||
| Kantar [46] | 2020 | USA | 13 | 23.1 % | Plastic Surgery | 3 PGY 1 (23,1 %) 3 PGY2 (23,1 %) 3 PGY 3 (23,1 %) 4 PGY 4 (30,8 %) |
VR trainer | Learning from text-book | Unilateral cleft lip repair | – | – | |
| Korets [47] | 2011 | USA | 16 | NS | Urology | 10 PGY 1–3 (62,5 %) 6 PGY 4–5 (37,5 %) |
Robot trainer with digital coaching vs. robot trainer with mentor | No additional training | Basic surgical skills | – | – | |
| Korndorffer [48] | 2012 | USA | 20 | 50 % (80 % digital, 20 % analogue) | General Surgery | PGY 1–5 (mean PGY 2.3–2.8) |
Digital boxtrainer | Analogue boxtrainer | Basic laparoscopic skills | – | – | |
| Kun [49] | 2019 | China | 50 | 54 % | NS | PGY 2–3 | Robot trainer with self-coaching with exercise videos | Robot trainer with self-coaching without videos of the exercise | Basic Robotic skills | (Collaborator) | (Decision making) | |
| Logishetty [50] | 2019 | UK | 28 | 29,2 % | Surgery Orthopaedic surgery | PGY 3–5 | Immersive VR trainer | “Conventional preparatory materials” | Total hip arthroplasty | (Communication and Teamwork) | ||
| Lohre [51] | 2020 | Canada | 16 | NS | Orthopaedic surgery | 6 PGY 4 (37,5 %) 10 PGY 5 (62,5) |
Immersive VR trainer | “Traditional learning using a technical journal article” | Shoulder arthroplasty | (Collaborator) | (Decision making) | |
| McKinney [61] | 2022 | USA | 22 | NS | Orthopaedic surgery | 7 PGY 1 (31,8 %) 7 PGY 2 (31,8 %) 3 PGY 3 (13,6 %) 3 PGY 4 (13,6 %) 2 PGY 5 (9,1 %) |
Immersive VR trainer | “Reading the technique guide” | Knee arthroplasty | – | (Decision making) | |
| Orzech [52] | 2012 | Canada | 24 | NS | General Surgery | PGY >2, median PGY 2.6–3.2 | VR trainer | Analogue boxtrainer | Advanced laparoscopic skills | (Communication and Teamwork) | ||
| Palter [53] | 2013 | Canada | 16 | NS | General Surgery | 14 PGY 1 (87,5 %) 2 PGY 2 (12,5 %) |
VR trainer | Normal residency curriculum, without additional training. | Basic laparoscopic skills Laparoscopic cholecystectomy |
– | – | |
| Sharifzadeh [60] | 2021 | Iran | 46 | 100 % | Obstetrics and Gynaecology | PGY 2–3 | Serious game | No additional training | Basic ynaecological skills | – | (Decision making) | |
| Sloth [54] | 2021 | Denmark | 46 | 69,6 % | General surgery Urology Gynaecology |
PGY 1, no previous simulation training, <50 supervised laparoscopic procedures | Digital boxtrainer at home vs digital boxtrainer in hospital | Intracorporeal suturing | – | – | ||
| Valdis [55] | 2016 | Canada | 40 | 30 % | General Surgery | < 10 h on robotic surgical simulator, mean year of training: 4–5 | VR trainer | No additional training | Wet lab training Dry lab training |
Basic robotic skills | (Decision Making) | |
| van Det [56] | 2011 | Netherlands | 10 | NS | General Surgery | No experience with laparoscopic surgery | Video-enhanced intraoperative feedback | Traditional intraoperative feedback | Nissen fundoplication | (Communication and Teamwork) | ||
| Varras [57] | 2020 | Greece | 20 | 45 % | Obstetrics and Gynaecology | < 10 laparoscopic surgeries, no experience with VR simulators | Digital boxtrainer VR trainer |
Basic laparoscopic skills | – | Decision making | ||
| Waterman [58] | 2016 | USA | 22 | 4,5 % | Orthopaedic surgery | PGY 1–4, median PGY 3.0 | VR trainer | “Standard practice” | Basic laparoscopic skills | (Collaborator) | (Decision making) | |
| Yiasemidou [59] | 2017 | UK | 25 | NS | General Surgery | ST3-ST4, <15 laparoscopic cholecystectomies as primary surgeon | VR trainer | Analogue box trainer | Laparoscopic cholecystectomy | (Communication and Teamwork) | ||
a
When non-technical skills are presented between brackets, they were assessed by the authors but outcomes specific for that non-technical skill are not presented in the manuscript.