Figure 2.

DF fermentation byproducts, protons (H⁺), carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane, and lactate, aid in the diversification of gut microbiota resulting in increased fecal bulking. SCFAs act on myofibroblasts to produce prostaglandins that produce mucus membranes and provide epithelial barrier protection. Inhibition of toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) downregulates nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NFkB) to attenuate the production of proinflammatory cytokines such as interleukin-1(IL-1), IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α). Inhibition of the activation of neutrophils and eosinophils prevents further cytokine activation and proliferation of B and T cells.