Table 2.

Contribution of gut microbe EVs to immune homeostasis.

Species	Evidence from studies	Reference
Escherichia coli Nissle 1917	Reduction in the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines in colitis	Lee et al. (2012)
	Increase in epithelial barrier integrity through the upregulation of tight junction proteins	Alvarez et al. (2016)
Bacteroides fragilis	Promotion of an immunomodulatory Treg response through DCs stimulation in colitis and mucosal tolerance through the regulation of autophagic genes	Shen et al. (2012)
	Induction and inhibition of anti-inflammatory and pro-inflammatory cytokines in the Caco-2 cell line, respectively	Ahmadi Badi et al. (2019)
Lactobacillus rhamnosus	Increase in gut DC levels and the induction of IL-10 release	Al-Nedawi et al. (2015)
Lactobacillus sakei	Increase in IgA production in the gut and improvement in epithelial barrier function	Yamasaki-Yashiki et al. (2019)
Lactobacillus kefir, Lactobacillus kefiranofaceins, Lactobacillus kefirgranum	Suppression of proinflammatory cytokine production in an IBD mouse model	Seo et al. (2018)
Akkermansia muciniphila	Inhibition of colitis progression by improving macroscopic scores	Kang et al. (2013)
	Promotion of AMPK phosphorylation and prevention of LPS-induced intestinal barrier damage	Chelakkot et al. (2018)
	Recovery of the gut barrier integrity in HFD-induced obesity by improving the expression of tight junction proteins	Chelakkot et al. (2018)
Bifidobacterium longum	Improvements in allergic diarrhea through mast cells apoptosis in a food allergy mouse model	Kim et al. (2016)
Bifidobacterium bifidum	Promotion of an immunomodulatory Treg response through DC stimulation in PBMCs-isolated naïve T cells	López et al. (2012)
Bifidobacterium vulgatus	Induction of tolerance in colonic BMDCs	Maerz et al. (2018)

DCs, dendritic cells; IL, interleukin; HFD, high-fat diet; IBD, inflammatory bowel disease; IgA, immunoglobulin A; PBMCs, peripheral blood mononuclear cells; BMDCs, Bone Marrow-Derived Dendritic Cells.