Figure 3.

Schematic illustration of the application of exosomes. (A) The signal molecules/factors promote the change of stem cell niche in different ways to adapt to the stem cell function of the tissue in the stem cell microenvironment including cell–cell and cell–ECM interactions, physicochemical properties, gene regulation, and scaffold architecture [adapted from Augustine et al. (80)]. (B) Non-coding RNAs in cardiac regeneration [adapted from Yuan and Krishnan (81)]. (C) The combined transplantation of stem cells from two different sources can promote paracrine and induce cardiomyocyte differentiation, further promoting the repair of myocardial injury (left). The stem cells were pretreated with cytokines before transplantation to strengthen the functional activity of stem cells in promoting myocardial repair (right) [adapted from Beliën et al. (82)]. (D) The therapeutic potential and challenges of cell and extracellular vesicle-based therapies [adapted from Liu et al. (83)].