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. 2023 Jul 22;270(11):5461–5474. doi: 10.1007/s00415-023-11875-z

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© The Author(s) 2023

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 1 — Comparison of plasma biomarker levels. 1 Comparison results between the two groups of PD and HC in plasma levels of GFAP (a), NfL (b), p-tau181 (c), Aβ42/40 (d), Aβ40 (e) and Aβ42 (f). Significance was tested using the Wilcoxon rank sum test. 2 Multiple comparison results among the three groups of HC, PDND, and PDD in plasma levels of GFAP (g), NfL (h), p-tau181 (i), Aβ42/40 (j), Aβ40 (k) and Aβ42 (l). Significance was tested with Kruskal − Wallis test followed by post hoc Steel − Dwass multiple comparison tests. PD Parkinson’s disease, HC healthy control, PDND nondemented Parkinson’s disease, PDD Parkinson’s disease dementia, GFAP glial fibrillary acidic protein, NfL neurofilament light chain, p-tau phosphorylated tau, Aβ amyloid beta, N.S. not significant