Table 1.
Changes in neuroplasticity-related indicators after NSC treatment for AD
| Before NSC treatment | After NSC treatment | |
|---|---|---|
| Symptoms | Cognition, learning, memory↓ (Berger et al., 2020; Moreno-Jiménez et al., 2021; Mecca et al., 2022) | Cognition, learning, memory↑ (Zhang et al., 2014b, 2019; Hayashi et al., 2020) |
| Pathological features | Aβ↑ (Apodaca et al., 2021; Gómez-Isla and Frosch, 2022) | Aβ↓ (Zhang et al., 2014b; Apodaca et al., 2021) |
| Aβ42↑ (Toda et al., 2019; Lu et al., 2021) | Aβ40↓ (Apodaca et al., 2021) | |
| Aβ1–40↑ (Zhang et al., 2014b; Apodaca et al., 2021) | Aβ42↓ (Lu et al., 2021) | |
| tau, p-tau↑ (Kim et al., 2015; Zhang et al., 2022) | Aβ1–40↓ (Apodaca et al., 2021) | |
| tau, p-tau↓ (Kim et al., 2015; Zhang et al., 2022) | ||
| Synaptic plasticity | LTD↑ (Zhang et al., 2014b; Mango et al., 2019) | LTD↓ (Mango et al., 2019) |
| LTP↓ (Zhang et al., 2014b; Wang et al., 2020) | LTP↑ (Zhang et al., 2019; De Gioia et al., 2020; Liu et al., 2020b; Zhao et al., 2021) | |
| Synaptic connection↓ (Yamasaki et al., 2007; Wu et al., 2016; Babcock et al., 2021; Mecca et al., 2022) | Synaptic connection↑ (Wu et al., 2016) | |
| Synaptic density↓ (De Gioia et al., 2020; Montero-Crespo et al., 2021; Mecca et al., 2022) | Synaptic density↑ (Wu et al., 2016; Zhang et al., 2019; De Gioia et al., 2020) | |
| Number of synapses↓ (Zhang et al., 2014a) | Number of synapses↑ (Zhang et al., 2014a) | |
| Dendritic branches↓ (Lu et al., 2021) | Dendritic branches↑ (Wu et al., 2016; Lu et al., 2021) | |
| Dendritic spine density↓ (Montero-Crespo et al., 2021; Walker and Herskowitz, 2021) | Dendritic spine density↑ (Wu et al., 2016; Zhao et al., 2020) | |
| NSCs | Proliferation↓ (Zhao et al., 2017; Hu et al., 2018; Toda et al., 2019; Scopa et al., 2020) | Proliferation↑ (Scopa et al., 2020; Lu et al., 2021; Shu et al., 2021) |
| Survival↓ (Zhao et al., 2017) | Survival↑ (Duncan and Valenzuela, 2017; Shu et al., 2021; Zhao et al., 2021) | |
| Migration↓ (Ager et al., 2015; Shu et al., 2021) | Migration↑ (Ager et al., 2015; Shu et al., 2021) | |
| Differentiation↓ (Wu et al., 2008; Lu et al., 2011; Kizil and Bhattarai, 2018) | Differentiation↑ (Ager et al., 2015; Zhao et al., 2017; Shu et al., 2021) | |
| Cell marker | Tuj1+↓ (Lu et al., 2021) | Tuj1+↑ (Lu et al., 2021) |
| Sox2+↓ (Boldrini et al., 2018; Scopa et al., 2020) | Sox2+↑ (Boldrini et al., 2018; Scopa et al., 2020) | |
| Stem121+↓(Lu et al., 2021) | Stem121+↑(Lu et al., 2021) | |
| BrdU+↓ (Yan et al., 2016; Baglietto-Vargas et al., 2017; Scopa et al., 2020) | BrdU+↑ (Kim et al., 2015; Yan et al., 2016; Scopa et al., 2020) | |
| NeuN+↓ (Yang et al., 2014; Yan et al., 2016; Shu et al., 2021) | NeuN+↑ (Yan et al., 2016; Lu et al., 2021; Shu et al., 2021) | |
| DCX+↓ (Moreno-Jiménez et al., 2019; Tobin et al., 2019; Li Puma et al., 2020; Zhou et al., 2022) | DCX+↑ (Kim et al., 2015; Baglietto-Vargas et al., 2017; Lu et al., 2021; Shu et al., 2021) | |
| Stem121+NeuN+↓ (Scopa et al., 2020) | Stem121+NeuN+↑ (Lu et al., 2021) | |
| GFAP+↓ (Yang et al., 2014; Shu et al., 2021) | GFAP+↑ (Yang et al., 2014; Shu et al., 2021) | |
| Stem121+GFAP+↓ (Lu et al., 2021) | Stem121+GFAP+↑ (Lu et al., 2021) | |
| O4+↓ (Lu et al., 2021) | O4+↑ (Lu et al., 2021) | |
| NG2+↓ (Yang et al., 2014; Yan et al., 2016) | NG2+↑(Yang et al., 2014; Yan et al., 2016) | |
| Stem121+NG2+↓(Lu et al., 2021) | Stem121+NG2+↑(Lu et al., 2021) | |
| Molecular | PSD-95↓ (Masliah et al., 2001; Martin et al., 2014; Zhang et al., 2014a; Bustos et al., 2017) | PSD-95↑ (Zhang et al., 2014a; Kim et al., 2015; Wu et al., 2016) |
| SYP↓ (Martin et al., 2014; Zhao et al., 2020; Apodaca et al., 2021) | SYP↑ (Zhang et al., 2014a; Ager et al., 2015; Wu et al., 2016; Apodaca et al., 2021) | |
| NT-3↓ (Park et al., 2020) | NT-3↑ (Park et al., 2020) | |
| VEGF↓ (Kim et al., 2015; McGinley et al., 2016) | VEGF↑ (Kim et al., 2015; McGinley et al., 2016) | |
| NGF↓ (Park et al., 2012; Park et al., 2013) | NGF↑ (Park et al., 2012; Park et al., 2013) | |
| BDNF, TrkB↓ (Zhang et al., 2014b; Wang et al., 2020; Wu et al., 2021; Gao et al., 2022) | BDNF, TrkB↑ (Blurton-Jones et al., 2009; Wu et al., 2016; Xiong et al., 2018; Shu et al., 2021) | |
| GAP-43↓ (Ma et al., 2012; Li et al., 2020) | GAP-43↑ (Ma et al., 2012; Li et al., 2020) | |
| ChAT↓ (Park et al., 2012, 2020; Yan et al., 2016; Lu et al., 2021) | ChAT↑ (Park et al., 2012, 2020; Yan et al., 2016; Lu et al., 2021) | |
| Ach, Hes1↓ (Yan et al., 2016) | Ach, Hes1↑ (Yan et al., 2016) | |
| MAP2↓ (Li et al., 2020) | MAP2↑ (Li et al., 2020) | |
| p-ERK↓ (Zhang et al., 2022) | p-ERK↑ (Zhang et al., 2022) | |
| CREB↓ (Li et al., 2020) | CREB↑ (Li et al., 2020) | |
| p-CREB↓ (Zhang et al., 2022) | p-CREB↑ (Zhang et al., 2022) | |
| NF-κB, p-NF-κB↑ (Zhang et al., 2022) | NF-κB↓ (Zhang et al., 2022) | |
| CaMKII↓ (Zhang et al., 2022) | CaMKII↑ (Zhang et al., 2022) | |
| Mash1, Ngn1↑ (Yan et al., 2016) | Mash1, Ngn1↓ (Yan et al., 2016) | |
| Akt, p-Akt↓ (Park et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2022) | Akt, p-Akt↑ (Park et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2022) | |
| NMDA, PKCζ↓ (Park et al., 2020) | NMDA, PKCζ↑ (Park et al., 2020) |
Aβ: Amyloid-β; Ach: acetylcholine; AD: Alzheimer’s disease; Akt: protein kinase B; CaMKII: Calcium-calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II; ChAT: choline acetyltransferase; CREB: cAMP response element binding protein; ERK: extracellular regulated protein kinase; GAP-43: growth-associated protein-43; GFAP: glial fibrillary acidic protein; Hes1: hairy and enhancer of split homolog-1; LTP: long-term potentiation; LTD: long-term depression; MAP2: microtubule-associated protein 2; Mash1: mammalian achaete-scute homolog 1; NF-κB: nuclear factor kappa beta; NGF: nerve growth factor; Ngn1: neurogenin 1; NMDA: N-methyl-d-aspartic acid; NT-3: neurotrophin-3; p-CREB: phosphorylated CREB; p-ERK: phosphorylated ERK; p-NF-κB: phosphorylated NF-κB; p-tau: phosphorylated tau; PKCζ: protein kinase C zeta; PSD-95: postsynaptic density-95; Sox2: SRY-box transcription factor 2; SYP: synaptophysin; Tuj1: neuron-specific class III beta-tubulin; VEGF: vascular endothelial-derived growth factor.