Figure 1.

BBB leakage, neuroinflammation, and related peripheral signaling pathways of immune response involved in ischemic stroke.

Because of lacking oxygen and glucose, the brain initiates a series of reactions such as oxidative stress. These reactions will cause BBB leakage and subsequent neuroinflammation. DAMPs released by damaged issues will promote the activation of microglia and stimulate them to release various elements such as cytokines, chemokines, second messengers, and ROS. Such materials have different effects at different times when triggering the peripheral immune cells to respond. Created with Adobe Illustrator 2019. BBB: Blood-brain barrier; DAMP: damage-associated molecular patterns; IFN-γ: interferon-γ; IL-17: interleukin-17; IL-10: interleukin-10; ROS: reactive oxygen species.