TABLE 2.
Associations between pregestational type 1 and type 2 diabetes and noncardiac birth defects included in the National Birth Defects Prevention Study, 1997–2011
| No diabetes |
Pregestational type 1 diabetes |
Pregestational type 2 diabetes |
|||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| All |
All |
All |
|||
| Birth defect | Unexposeda | Type 1 exposeda |
Type 1 OR (95% CI)b |
Type 2 exposeda |
Type 2 OR (95% CI)b |
| Amniotic band sequence | 315 | 2 | NC | 4 | 4.1 (1.0, 11.5) |
| Central nervous system defects | |||||
| Anencephaly | 588 | 10 | 6.9 (2.9, 15.0) | 4 | 2.2 (0.6, 6.1) |
| Spina bifida | 1,162 | 2 | NC | 6 | 1.6 (0.6, 3.6) |
| Encephalocele | 205 | 4 | 8.8 (2.2, 26.0) | 3 | 4.7 (0.9, 15.0) |
| Holoprosencephaly | 136 | 3 | 10.0 (1.9, 33.4) | 7 | 14.4 (5.7, 32.4) |
| Dandy–Walker malformation | 168 | 1 | NC | 1 | NC |
| Hydrocephaly | 453 | 10 | 9.6 (4.4, 19.5) | 9 | 7.6 (3.4, 15.4) |
| Cerebellar hypoplasia | 55 | 0 | NC | 0 | NC |
| Eye defects | |||||
| Anophthalmia/microphthalmiac | 211 | 1 | NC | 4 | 6.0 (1.5, 17.2) |
| Congenital cataractsc,d | 329 | 0 | NC | 3 | 3.1 (0.6, 10.2) |
| Glaucoma | 170 | 1 | NC | 0 | NC |
| Anotia/microtia | 593 | 12 | 8.4 (3.8, 17.4) | 6 | 2.8 (1.0, 6.6) |
| Orofacial defects | |||||
| Cleft lip with palatec,d | 1,822 | 10 | 2.3 (1.1, 4.7) | 23 | 4.1 (2.3, 7.1) |
| Cleft lip onlyc,d | 1,005 | 2 | NC | 13 | 4.8 (2.4, 9.3) |
| Cleft palate onlyc,d | 1,432 | 15 | 4.1 (2.1, 7.8) | 19 | 4.4 (2.4, 7.8) |
| Choanal atresia | 148 | 1 | NC | 1 | NC |
| Gastrointestinal defects | |||||
| Anorectal atresia/stenosis | 946 | 11 | 5.4 (2.6, 10.8) | 11 | 4.4 (2.2, 8.2) |
| Small intestine atresia/stenosis | 438 | 0 | NC | 2 | NC |
| Esophageal atresia | 697 | 2 | NC | 10 | 5.3 (2.5, 10.6) |
| Duodenal atresia/stenosis | 221 | 0 | NC | 1 | NC |
| Biliary atresia | 180 | 2 | NC | 2 | NC |
| Cloacal exstrophy | 88 | 0 | NC | 0 | NC |
| Colonic atresia/stenosis | 58 | 0 | NC | 0 | NC |
| Genitourinary defects | |||||
| Hypospadiasc,d | 2,368 | 8 | 1.7 (0.7, 4.4) | 17 | 3.8 (1.8, 8.0) |
| Renal agenesis/hypoplasia | 166 | 3 | 8.2 (1.6, 27.3) | 5 | 8.3 (2.6, 21.2) |
| Bladder exstrophy | 65 | 0 | NC | 2 | NC |
| Musculoskeletal defects | |||||
| Transverse limb deficiency | 661 | 3 | 2.1 (0.4, 6.8) | 5 | 2.9 (1.0, 6.7) |
| Intercalary and longitudinal limb deficiency | 471 | 14 | 13.6 (6.8, 26.1) | 11 | 9.6 (4.6, 18.8) |
| Craniosynostosis | 1,450 | 6 | 1.6 (0.6, 3.8) | 4 | 0.9 (0.2, 2.5) |
| Diaphragmatic hernia | 802 | 2 | NC | 6 | 2.4 (0.9, 5.5) |
| Omphalocele | 400 | 2 | NC | 4 | 3.2 (0.8, 9.0) |
| Gastroschisis | 1,404 | 2 | NC | 2 | NC |
| Sacral agenesis | 65 | 12 | 70.4 (32.3, 147.0) | 11 | 59.9 (25.4, 135.0) |
Note: Bold font represents a statistically significant finding; italicized font represents a crude odds ratio.
Abbreviations: CI, confidence interval; NC, not calculated; OR, odds ratio.
The pregestational type 1 analysis included 24 exposed and 10,840 unexposed controls. The pregestational type 2 analyses included 34 exposed and 10,840 unexposed controls.
Crude ORs and Fisher's Exact 95% CIs are presented for defects groups with 3–4 exposed cases and are italicized. For defects with ≥5 exposed cases, Firth's penalized likelihood estimates were adjusted for mother's age, race/ethnicity, education, body mass index (weight in kg/height in m, and study center. Estimates are not provided for analyses with <3 exposed cases.
The number of controls differed for the following pregestational type 1 birth defect analyses: clefts (24 exposed and 10,707 unexposed controls), hypospadias (11 exposed and 5,528 unexposed male controls).
The number of controls differed for the following pregestational type 2 birth defect analyses: congenital cataracts and glaucoma (27 exposed and 9,220 unexposed controls), clefts (34 exposed and 10,707 unexposed controls), hypospadias (16 exposed and 5,528 unexposed male controls).