Table 2.
Findings obtained in studies that apply variations of the RHI paradigm in amputees.
| Study | Employed paradigm derived by RHI | Involved participants | Findings |
|---|---|---|---|
| Ehrsson et al. (2008b) | Brushstrokes of phantom fingers of the stump synchronously to a rubber hand | 15 transradial amputees | Embodiment of fake hand can be elicited also in amputees |
| Rosén et al., 2009a | Brushstroke of the digits of prosthesis translated as brushstroke on the phantom fingers of the stump | 4 transradial amputees and a participant with congenital missing hand | Illusion of embodiment elicited using touch on both prosthesis and stump |
| Marasco et al. (2011) | Touch of the digits of prosthesis translated as pressure on the targeted reinnervation skin | 2 transhumeral undergone to TMSR | Illusion of embodiment elicited using touch on prosthesis and on reinnervated skin |
| Schmalzl et al. (2014) | Brushstrokes of phantom fingers of the stump synchronously to a rubber hand performed in MRI | 2 transradial amputees | Same brain regions underlie ownership sensations of an artificial hand in amputees and non-amputees |
| D’Alonzo et al. (2015) | Vibrotactile stimulation on phantom fingers of the stump stimulated synchronously to the brushstroke of a rubber hand | 9 transradial amputees | Illusion elicited when different types of stimulation are applied to the subject’ limb and the artificial hand |
| Sato et al., 2018 | Open and close a robotic hand with a velocity proportional to the EMG amplitude recorded at the stump (motor hand illusion) | 3 transradial amputees | Prosthesis embodiment elicited by the match between vision and the efference |
| Page et al., 2018a | 3 tested conditions: tactile feedback provided to the prosthesis delivered by intraneural stimulation to the user, control of the prosthesis using intramuscular electrodes, and the combination of both conditions | 1 transradial amputee implanted with intramuscular electrodes (iEMG) and Utah Slanted Electrode Arrays (USEAs) | Similar level of elicited prosthesis embodiment and phantom pain reduction among conditions |
| Rognini et al. (2019) | In VR environment, intraneural stimulation delivered synchronously with visual illumination of the region of the prosthesis corresponding to the referred location of the perceived touch | 2 transradial amputees implanted with transverse intrafascicular multichannel electrodes (TIMEs) | Prosthesis embodiment and reduction of the phantom limb telescoping induced by visuotactile stimulation |
| Zbinden and Ortiz-Catalan (2021) | Touch of the digits of prosthesis translated as peripheral nerve stimulation | 4 transhumeral amputees with osseointegrated human-machine gateway | RHI-induced embodiment and the long-term embodiment of a prosthesis may be mediated by (at least partially), different mechanisms |