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. 2023 Oct 16;13(10):e075136. doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2023-075136

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© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2023. Re-use permitted under CC BY-NC. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ.

This is an open access article distributed in accordance with the Creative Commons Attribution Non Commercial (CC BY-NC 4.0) license, which permits others to distribute, remix, adapt, build upon this work non-commercially, and license their derivative works on different terms, provided the original work is properly cited, appropriate credit is given, any changes made indicated, and the use is non-commercial. See: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/.

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Dose–response relationships between time of PPI use and kidney stones: (A) time of PPI use and kidney stones; (B) time of PPI use and recurrent kidney stones. Adjusted for age, sex, race, education level, smoking, alcohol consumption, BMI, mean arterial pressure, HbA1c, triglycerides, history of CVD, gout, thiazide use, loop diuretic use and H2RA use, sedentary time, total water intake, albumin-adjusted calcium and eGFR. The shaded part represents the 95% CI. BMI, body mass index; CVD, cardiovascular disease; eGFR, estimated glomerular filtration rate; H2RA, histamine-2 receptor antagonist; PPIs, proton pump inhibitors.