Table 3.

Preclinical experiment of vascular calcification based on “crosstalk”

Model	Intervene	Mechanism	Results	Refs
Intramuscular injection of vit D3 and nicotine by gavage	Oral/Rectal propionate administration or FMT intervention or intragastric administration Akkermansia	Propionate can reduce VC by mediating intestinal microbiota remodelling and supplementation with Akkermansia can also alleviate VC	Improved VDN-induced VC	[322]
Intraperitoneally injected with VD3	Intravenous injection AB-EVs or YB-EVs	AB-EVs are transported into circulation and deposited in blood vessels to stimulate RUNX2 expression and osteogenic transition of VSMCs via transferring miR-2861	AB-EVs aggravated VC	[10]
Subcutaneous injection of Vit D	Intraperitoneally injection of Torin- 1 (an mTOR inhibitor)	Torin-1 significantly reduced the co-localization of mTOR vs Lamp-1 and increased lysosome-MVB interaction	Reduced Pi-induced mineral deposition	[230]
Intraperitoneal injection of Vit D3	Curcumin by gavage	Curcumin increased miR-92b-3p loading in EVs and decreased expression of its target KLF4	Improved vit D-induced VC	[245]
High-fat diet (HFD) and intraperitoneal injection of STZ and vit D	Tail vein injection of A-EC/sEVs	AGEs stimulate the secretion of miR126-5prich sEVs, targeting BMPR1 to block the smad1/5/9 signaling pathway	Improved T2D-mediated VC	[70]
HFD and intraperitoneal injection of STZ	BMCs of LV galectin-3 were transplanted into ApoE−/− mice	Galectin-3 in macrophages promoted migration of VSMC- derived EVs to the intima	Induced diabetic intima calcification	[293]
5/6 nephrectomy + high phosphate diet	•GW4869 •miR-670-3p endothelial cell-specific knock-in (miR-670-3pEC−KI) and knock-out (miR-670-3pEC−KO) mice	•GW4869 eliminated the formation and release of EVs •miR-670-3p regulated the downstream target IGF-1	•GW4869 improved high phosphorus-induced VC •miR-670-3p in ECs-derived EVs promoted VC	[68]
5/6 nephrectomy + high phosphate diet	Tail vein injection of BMSC-Exo	BMSC-Exo down-regulated NFAT5 by delivering miR-381-3p	Improved CKD-VC	[189]
5/6 nephrectomy + high phosphate diet	Tail vein injection of BMSC-Exo	BMSC-Exo regulated of the NONHSAT 084969.2/NF- κB axis	Inhibited high phosphorus-induced VC and improved renal function	[191]
5/6 nephrectomy + high phosphate diet	Tail vein injection of adenovirus encoding omentin1/ omentin-1-deficient (omentin-1−/−) mice	Omentin-1 activated AMPK and Akt signaling pathways	Adipose tissue-derived omentin-1 reduced arterial calcification	[217]
5/6 nephrectomy + high phosphate diet	Tail vein injection of VSMCs-Exo for melatonin treatment	Melatonin up-regulated miR-204/miR-211 in EVs	Improved VC and aging	[71]
CKD (high phosphorus diet)	Increased BßGlucans diet (CKD + BßGlucans) from barley flour	Barley-ß-glucans inhibited SMPD3 expression	Reduced inflammation, kidney damage and aortic calcification	[229]
High-cholesterol (HC) diet	Tail vein injection of miR-214 specific-siRNA	miR-214-specific-siRNA leads to increased expression of the downstream target TWIST1	Improved HC diet-induced aortic valve calcification (AVC)	[291]