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. 2023 Oct 18;23:241. doi: 10.1186/s12874-023-01984-8

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Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

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Fig. 1 — Simulation methodology—plot matrix describing simulation methodology for a hypothetical patient who developed COVID-19 infection 5 months following hip fracture. ‘Combined Hazard – illustrates the combined hazard for death for the example patient’s set of characteristics under COVID-19 positive test and no positive test scenarios. ‘Simulate’ – illustrates the results of the first 20 simulations of a patient’s survival times under positive test and no positive test scenarios. ‘Summarise’ – all individual simulation results for the example patient are summarised as a Kaplan–Meier cumulative survival function. Hazard refers to hazard of death. Relative Risk refers to the impact of the fixed and time-dependent covariate pattern for any individual. Source: Office for Health Improvement and Disparities, using data from National Hip Fracture Database (NHFD), Hospital Episode Statistics (HES) and Office for National Statistics (ONS), England. Copyright © 2022, Re-used with the permission of NHS Digital. All rights reserved