Table 1.
Description of included studies in the meta-analysis
| No | Author name | Year | Country | Study sdesign | Region | Sample | Frequency* | ES**[95%C] | Quality |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Ekholuenetale et al. [36] | 2020 | Benin | cross-sectional | Western Africa | 960 | 518 | 54.0[50.8, 57.0] | 8 |
| 2 | Some et al. [44] | 2020 | Burkina Faso | Cross-sectional | Western Africa | 704 | 261 | 37.1[33.6, 40.7] | 8 |
| 3 | Samadoulougou et al. [45] | 2018 | Burkina Faso | Cross-sectional | Western Africa | 9788 | 4144 | 42.3[41.4,43.3] | 8 |
| 4 | Appiah et al. [28] | 2022 | Cameroon | Cross-sectional | Central Africa | 4183 | 1931 | 46.2[44.7, 47.7] | 7 |
| 5 | Njim [46] | 2016 | Cameroon | Cross-sectional | Central Africa | 192 | 39 | 20.3[15.2, 26.6] | 8 |
| 6 | Tolefac et al. [47] | 2022 | Cameroon | Cross-sectional | Central Africa | 293 | 164 | 56.0[ 50.3,61.5] | 8 |
| 7 | Myop et al. [48] | 2022 | Congo | Cross-sectional | Central Africa | 1318 | 737 | 55.9[53.2, 58.6] | 8 |
| 8 | Halima et al. [49] | 2021 | Egypt | Cross-sectional | Northern Africa | 160 | 96 | 60.0[52.3, 67.3] | 7 |
| 9 | Girma et al. [50] | 2023 | Ethiopia | cross-sectional | Eastern Africa | 401 | 163 | 40.6[36.0, 45.5] | 8 |
| 10 | Wolde et al. [51] | 2019 | Ethiopia | cross-sectional | Eastern Africa | 364 | 173 | 47.5[42.4, 52.7] | 8 |
| 11 | Jemberu et al. [52] | 2020 | Ethiopia | cross-sectional | Eastern Africa | 421 | 107 | 25.4[21.5, 29.8] | 8 |
| 12 | Adere et al. [53] | 2020 | Ethiopia | Cross-sectional | Eastern Africa | 390 | 158 | 40.5[35.8, 45.5] | 8 |
| 13 | Azeze et al. [54] | 2020 | Ethiopia | Cross-sectional | Eastern Africa | 277 | 105 | 37.9[32.4, 43.7] | 7 |
| 14 | Tesfu et al. [23] | 2021 | Ethiopia | Cross-sectional | Eastern Africa | 804 | 355 | 44.2[40.8, 47.6] | 8 |
| 15 | Debelo et al. [55] | 2022 | Ethiopia | Cross-sectional | Eastern Africa | 330 | 137 | 41.5[36.3, 46.9] | 7 |
| 16 | Alene et al. [56] | 2021 | Ethiopia | cross-sectional | Eastern Africa | 820 | 258 | 31.5[28.4, 34.7] | 7 |
| 17 | Shiferaw et al. [57] | 2021 | Ethiopia | Cross-sectional | Eastern Africa | 1855 | 503 | 27.1[25.1, 29.2] | 7 |
| 18 | Yezengaw [58] | 2022 | Ethiopia | cross-sectional | Eastern Africa | 207 | 136 | 65.7[59.0, 71.8] | 7 |
| 19 | Kolola et al. [59] | 2020 | Ethiopia | Cross-sectional | Eastern Africa | 384 | 153 | 40.6[35.8, 45.6] | 7 |
| 20 | Ejeta et al. [60] | 2017 | Ethiopia | Cross-sectional | Eastern Africa | 421 | 78 | 18.5[15.1, 22.5] | 8 |
| 21 | Wolde et al. [61] | 2018 | Ethiopia | Cross-sectional | Eastern Africa | 416 | 169 | 40.6[36.0, 45.4] | 8 |
| 22 | Gidey et al. [62] | 2017 | Ethiopia | Cross-sectional | Eastern Africa | 228 | 95 | 41.7[35.5, 48.2] | 7 |
| 23 | Tufa G et al. [63] | 2020 | Ethiopia | cross-sectional | Eastern Africa | 377 | 218 | 57.8[52.8, 62.7] | 7 |
| 24 | Abebe et al. [64] | 2023 | Ethiopia | Cross-sectional | Eastern Africa | 2935 | 1098 | 37.4[35.7, 39.2] | 8 |
| 25 | Tola et al. [65] | 2021 | Ethiopia | Cross-sectional | Eastern Africa | 389 | 117 | 30.1[25.7, 34.8] | 8 |
| 26 | Adulo et al. [66] | 2022 | Ethiopia | Cross-sectional | Eastern Africa | 2796 | 872 | 31.2[29.5, 32.9] | 7 |
| 27 | Kondale et al. [67] | 2016 | Ethiopia | Cross-sectional | Eastern Africa | 225 | 61 | 27.1[21.7, 33.3] | 6 |
| 28 | Geta et al. [68] | 2017 | Ethiopia | Cross-sectional | Eastern Africa | 608 | 132 | 21.7[18.6, 25.2] | 8 |
| 29 | Yaya et al. [69] | 2017 | Ethiopia | Cross-sectional | Eastern Africa | 10,896 | 3672 | 33.7[32.8, 34.6] | 8 |
| 30 | Redi et al. [31] | 2023 | Ethiopia | Cross-sectional | Eastern Africa | 375 | 157 | 41.9[37.0, 46.9] | 8 |
| 31 | Grum et al. [70] | 2018 | Ethiopia | Cross-sectional | Eastern Africa | 614 | 88 | 14.3[11.8, 17.3] | 8 |
| 32 | Teshale et al. [71] | 2020 | Ethiopia | Cross-sectional | Eastern Africa | 4741 | 1550 | 32.7[31.4, 34.0] | 8 |
| 33 | Tessema et al. [72] | 2023 | Ethiopia | Cross-sectional | Eastern Africa | 344 | 118 | 34.3[29.5, 39.5] | 8 |
| 34 | Dibabu et al. [73] | 2021 | Ethiopia | Cross-sectional | Eastern Africa | 454 | 184 | 40.5[36.1, 45.1] | 8 |
| 35 | Abera et al. [74] | 2023 | Ethiopia | Cross-sectional | Eastern Africa | 392 | 142 | 36.2[31.6, 41.1] | 8 |
| 36 | Alemu et al. [25] | 2018 | Ethiopia | Cross-sectional | Eastern Africa | 400 | 187 | 46.8[41.9, 51.6] | 8 |
| 37 | Drammeh et al. [75] | 2018 | Gambia | Cross-sectional | Western Africa | 238 | 30 | 12.6[9.0,17.4] | 7 |
| 38 | Kotoh et al. [27] | 2019 | Ghana | Cross-sectional | Western Africa | 431 | 38 | 8.8[6.5, 11.9] | 8 |
| 39 | Manyeh et al. [76] | 2020 | Ghana | Cross-sectional | Western Africa | 1076 | 617 | 57.3[54.4, 60.3] | 7 |
| 40 | Ziblim et al. [77] | 2022 | Ghana | Cross-sectional | Western Africa | 222 | 62 | 27.9[ 22.4, 34.2] | 6 |
| 41 | Anaba et al. [78] | 2022 | Ghana | Cross-sectional | Western Africa | 2163 | 1472 | 19.8[17.8, 21.9] | 8 |
| 42 | Amoako et al. [79] | 2021 | Ghana | Cross-sectional | Western Africa | 212 | 91 | 42.9[36.5, 49.7] | 6 |
| 43 | Peprah et al. [80] | 2022 | Ghana | Cross-sectional | Western Africa | 400 | 232 | 58.0[53.1, 62.7] | 8 |
| 44 | Seidu et al. [81] | 2021 | Guinea | Cross-sectional | Western Africa | 4274 | 968 | 22.7[21.4, 23.93] | 6 |
| 45 | Muthoni et al. [30] | 2022 | Kenya | cross-sectional | Eastern Africa | 198 | 137 | 69.2[62.4, 75.2] | 6.5 |
| 46 | Wekesa et al. [82] | 2017 | Kenya | Cross-sectional | Eastern Africa | 279 | 55 | 19.7[15.5, 24.8] | 6 |
| 47 | Ochako et al. [83] | 2018 | Kenya | Cross-sectional | Eastern Africa | 3569 | 558 | 15.6([4.5, 16.9] | 6 |
| 48 | Musaa et al. [84] | 2022 | Kenya | Cross-sectional | Eastern Africa | 6948 | 3645 | 52.5[51.3, 53.6] | 7 |
| 49 | Blackstone et al. [85] | 2019 | Liberia | Cross-sectional | Western Africa | 5348 | 3556 | 66.5[ 65.2, 67.7] | 8 |
| 50 | Ekholuenetale et al. [86] | 2022 | Liberia | Cross-sectional | Western Africa | 4095 | 2955 | 72.2[70.8, 73.5] | 8 |
| 51 | Machika et al. [87] | 2017 | Malawi | Cross-sectional | Eastern Africa | 386 | 111 | 28.8[24.5, 33.5] | 6 |
| 52 | Kuuire et al. [43] | 2017 | Malawi | Cross-sectional | Eastern Africa | 28,951 | 2885 | 10.0(9.6, 10.3] | 8 |
| 53 | Nkoka et al. [88] | 2018 | Malawi | Cross-sectional | Eastern Africa | 6413 | 1503 | 23.4(22.4, 24.5] | 5.5 |
| 54 | Housni et al. [89] | 2017 | Morocco | Cross-sectional | Northern Africa | 283 | 223 | 78.8[73.7, 83.2] | 5 |
| 55 | Okunowo et al. [90] | 2019 | Nigeria | cross-sectional | Western Africa | 380 | 151 | 39.7[34.9,44.7] | 8 |
| 56 | Aliyu et al. [91] | 2017 | Nigeria | Cross-sectional | Western Africa | 20,467 | 5485 | 26.8[26.2, 27.4] | 8 |
| 57 | Utuk et al. [92] | 2017 | Nigeria | Cross-sectional | Western Africa | 370 | 102 | 24.0[23.4, 24.7] | 6 |
| 58 | Fagbamigbe et al. [93] | 2021 | Nigeria | Cross-sectional | Western Africa | 16,448 | 3948 | 27.6[23.3, 32.3] | 7 |
| 59 | Anyaka et al. [94] | 2020 | Nigeria | Cross-sectional | Western Africa | 787 | 420 | 53.4[ 49.9, 56.8] | 7 |
| 60 | Harindimana et al. [95] | 2019 | Rwanda | Cross-sectional | Eastern Africa | 8853 | 3207 | 36.2[35.2, 37.2] | 8 |
| 61 | Uwimana et al. [96] | 2023 | Rwanda | Cross-sectional | Eastern Africa | 18,034 | 9364 | 51.9[51.2, 52.7] | 7 |
| 62 | Bagambe et al. [97] | 2021 | Rwanda | Cross-sectional | Eastern Africa | 5944 | 3339 | 56.2]54.9, 57.4] | 6 |
| 63 | Sserwanja et al. [98] | 2022 | Rwanda | Cross-sectional | Eastern Africa | 6302 | 3696 | 58.6[57.4, 59.9] | 8 |
| 64 | Innocent et al. [42] | 2021 | Rwanda | Cross-sectional | Eastern Africa | 140 | 60 | 42.9[35.0, 51.1) | 8 |
| 65 | Sserwanja et al. [99] | 2022 | Sierra Leone | Cross-sectional | Western Africa | 5432 | 2399 | 44.2[42.9, 45.5] | 8 |
| 66 | Hassen et al. [100] | 2019 | Somalia | Cross-sectional | Eastern Africa | 247 | 149 | 60.3[54.1, 66.2] | 8 |
| 67 | Smith [98] | 2019 | South Africa | cross-sectional | Southern Africa | 213 | 48 | 22.5[17.4, 28.60] | 7 |
| 68 | Haffejee et al. [101] | 2018 | South Africa | Cross-sectional | Southern Africa | 329 | 35 | 10.6[7.8, 14.4] | 6 |
| 69 | Rahatamalleh et al. [102] | 2017 | Sudan | cross-sectional | Northern Africa | 320 | 199 | 62.2[56.8, 67.3] | 6 |
| 70 | Moshi et al. [103] | 2021 | Tanzania | Cross-sectional | Eastern Africa | 6924 | 1586 | 22.9[21.9, 23.9] | 8 |
| 71 | Njiku et al. [104] | 2017 | Tanzania | Cross-sectional | Eastern Africa | 240 | 71 | 29.6[24.2, 35.6] | 7 |
| 72 | Katembo l [105] | 2017 | Tanzania | Cross-sectional | Eastern Africa | 352 | 106 | 30.1[25.6, 35.1] | 7 |
| 73 | Kisaka et al. [106] | 2020 | Tanzania | Cross-sectional | Eastern Africa | 311 | 91 | 29.3[24.5, 34.5] | 7 |
| 74 | Tungaraza et al. [107] | 2022 | Tanzania | Cross-sectional | Eastern Africa | 384 | 88 | 22.9[19.0, 27.4] | 6 |
| 75 | Okello et al. [108] | 2018 | Uganda | Cross-sectional | Eastern Africa | 390 | 227 | 58.2[53.3, 63.0] | 8 |
| 76 | Benah et al. [109] | 2017 | Uganda | Cross-sectional | Eastern Africa | 156 | 56 | 35.9[28.8, 43.7] | 5 |
| 77 | Mazera et al. [110] | 2019 | Uganda | Cross-sectional | Eastern Africa | 305 | 47 | 15.4 [11.8, 19.9] | 7 |
| 78 | Komuhangi et al. [111] | 2020 | Uganda | Cross-sectional | Eastern Africa | 283 | 31 | 11.0[7.8, 15.1] | 8 |
| 79 | Towongo et al. [112] | 2022 | Uganda | Cross-sectional | Eastern Africa | 9433 | 2802 | 29.7[28.8, 30.6] | 7 |
| 80 | Betty et al. [113] | 2018 | Uganda | Cross-sectional | Eastern Africa | 216 | 14 | 6.5[3.9, 10.6] | 6 |
| 81 | Chewe et al. [114] | 2016 | Zambia | cross-sectional | Eastern Africa | 305 | 41 | 13.4[10.1, 17.7] | 6 |
| 82 | Mwanamwambwa (2021) [115] | 2021 | Zambia | Cross-sectional | Eastern Africa | 200 | 123 | 61.5[54.6, 68.0] | 7 |
| 83 | Mbaala et al. [116] | 2019 | Zambia | Cross-sectional | Eastern Africa | 454 | 157 | 34.6[30.4, 39.1] | 7 |
| 84 | Sinyange et al. [117] | 2016 | Zambia | Cross-sectional | Eastern Africa | 3979 | 756 | 19.0[17.8, 20.2] | 5 |
| Over all pooled prevalence from random effect model | 37.15[33.3,41.0] | ||||||||
| Additional two studies included in factor analysis | |||||||||
| 85 | Wolderufael et al. [118] | 2020 | Ethiopia | Case–control | Eastern Africa | 459 | 153 | –– | 9.5 |
| 86 | Gebrekidan et al. [119] | 2017 | Ethiopia | Case–control | Eastern Africa | 402 | 268 | ––- | 9.8 |