Table 2.
Hierarchy of ego defenses as ordered by their level of maturity (non-exhaustive list).
| Level of maturity | Mechanisms | Definition |
|---|---|---|
| Psychotic | Delusional projection | Frank delusions about external reality, usually of a persecutory type, with abandonment of reality testing |
| Perception of one’s own feelings in another person and/or perception of other people or their feelings inside oneself | ||
| Distortion | Grossly reshaping external reality to suit inner needs (incl. unrealistic megalomaniacal beliefs, hallucinations, wish-fulfilling delusions); usually, unpleasant feelings are replaced with their opposites | |
| Immature | Passive-aggressive behavior | Aggression toward others expressed indirectly and ineffectively through passivity or directed against the self (e.g., via procrastination) |
| Acting out | Direct expression of an unconscious wish or impulse (e.g., via chronic drug abuse or self-inflicted injury) to avoid (a) being conscious of the affect that accompanies it, and (b) the tension that would result from postponement of instinctual expression | |
| Neurotic | Intellectualization | Thinking about instinctual wishes in formal, affectively bland terms, and not acting on them; the idea is conscious, but the feeling dismissed |
| Includes paying attention (1) to the inanimate in order to avoid intimacy with people; (2) to external reality to avoid expression of inner feelings; (3) to irrelevant detail to avoid perceiving the whole | ||
| Reaction formation | Behavior diametrically opposed to an unacceptable instinctual impulse (e.g., overtly caring for someone else when one wishes to be cared for) | |
| Mature | Suppression | (Semi-)Conscious decision to postpone (but not avoid) paying attention to a conscious impulse or conflict |
| Includes looking for silver linings or minimizing acknowledged discomfort | ||
| Sublimation | Indirect or attenuated expression of instincts without either adverse consequences or marked loss of pleasure (e.g., expressing aggression through pleasurable games, sports, and hobbies) | |
| Unlike with neurotic defenses, instincts are channeled rather than dammed or diverted |
Adapted from Vaillant (1977). Less mature defenses distort reality more severely and are therefore more costly to the adaptability of the ego. A mature character allows the ego to flexibly recruit defenses from all levels; a less mature character confines the ego to low-level defenses.