Table 1.
Characteristics of the included studies.
| First author (year/country) | Study design | Sample size (number and critical situation) | Age (mean ± SD) | Male | Auto-antibody (assay) | History of systemic autoimmune rheumatic disease | PCR for SARS-CoV-2 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Goncalves et al. (2020/France) | Prospective cohort | 84 critical (admitted to ICU) and 10 mild* | 65.4 ± 11.6 | 67 | aIFN-α2, aIFN-ω, IFN-β (ELISA) | 9 autoimmune disease | Yes |
| Wijst et al. (2020/United States) | Prospective cohort | 284 (26 critical, 102 severe, 156 moderate)* | 51.9 ± 16.2 | 195 | aIFN-α2 (radioligand binding assay) | ND | Yes |
| Solanich et al. (2021/Spain) | Retrospective | 275 severe admitted to ICU* | 63.3 ± 11.9 | 211 | aIFN-α2, aIFN-ω (ELISA) | No | Yes |
| Chauvineau-Grenier (2020/France) | Prospective cohort | 139 critical* | 64.4 ± 15.8 | 86 | aIFN-α2, aIFN-ω, aIFN-β (luciferase reporter assay, ELISA) | No | ND |
| Bastard et al. (2020/Multicenter) | Prospective cohort | 987 critical, 663 asymptomatic or mild* | ND | 761 males among critically ill patients | aIFN-α2, aIFN-ω (ELISA) | No | Yes |
| Bastard et al. (2020/Multicenter) | Prospective cohort | 3595 critical, 623 severe, 1639 asymptomatic or paucisymptomatic* | ND | ND | aIFN-α2, aIFN-ω, aIFN-β (Multiplex particle-based assay, ELISA) | No | Yes (PCR and/or serological test and/or displaying typical symptom) |
| Matuozzo et al. (2023/Multicenter) | Cohort | 928 | ND | ND | aIFN-1 | ND | Yes |
| Akbil et al. (2021/Multicenter) | Prospective cohort | 430 (237 critical)* | 62 ± 15.6 | 312 | aIFN-α, aIFN- ω (ELISA) | 14 autoimmune diseases | Yes |
| Abers et al. (2020/Italy) | Prospective cohort | 218 (135 critical, 44 severe, 39 mild/moderate) | ND | ND | aIFN-α, aIFN-ω, aIFN-β (ELISA) | ND | Yes |
| Troya et al. (2020/Spain) | Cohort | 31 severe and 16 critical | 68.5 ± 4 | 28 | aIFN-α2, aIFN-ω (luciferase reporter assays, ELISA) | No | Yes |
| Frasca et al. (2020/Italy) | Cohort | 360* | 62.25 ± 12.5 | 249 | aIFN‐α, aIFN-ω, aIFN‐β (ELISA) | No | Yes |
| Lopez et al. (2021/France) | Prospective cohort | 26 critical, 44 mild* | 44.9 ± 10.0 | 24 | aINF-α2 (ELISA) | ND | Yes |
| Troya et al. (2022/Spain) | Retrospective cohort | 178 critical* | 73.8 ± 3.8 | 115 | aINF-α2, aIFN-ω, aIFN-β | 19 autoimmune diseases | ND |
| Koning et al. (2020/Netherlands) | Prospective cohort | 210 severe to critical | 64.2 ± 5.1 | 133 | aIFN-1 (multiplex particle-based assay, ELISA) | ND | Yes |
| Eto et al. (2022/Japanese) | Prospective cohort | 627 (170 critical, 235 severe, 112 moderate, 105 mild, 5 asymptomatic)* |
60.0 ± 20.1 | 440 | aINF-α2, aIFN-ω (ELISA and ISRE reporter assays) | ND | ND |
| Raadsen et al. (2020/Netherlands) | Prospective cohort | 282 (100 mild, 43 moderate, 97 severe, 38 critical)* | 54.4 ± 15.7 | 229 | aINF-α2 (ELISA and a pseudo virus–based neutralization assay) | ND | Yes |
| Chang et al. (2021/United States) | Prospective cohort | 147* | 57.4 ± 15.7 | 56 | aIFN-1 (ELISA) | ND | Yes |
| Wang et al. (2020/United States) | Prospective cohort | 194 (55 severe, 103 moderate, 7 mild, 29 asymptomatic)* | 60.4 ± 18.7 | 87 | aIFN-1 ELISA) | ND | Yes |
| Vazquez et al. (2020/United States) | Retrospective cohort | 116 hospitalized* | ND | ND | aINF-α2 (radioligand binding assay), aIFN-ω (cell-based assay) | ND | Yes |
| Manry et al. (2022/France) | Cohort | 1261 died | 70.7 ± 13.0 | 821 | aINF-α, aIFN-ω, aIFN-β (ELISA) | ND | ND |
| Savvateeva et al. (2021/Russia) | Cohort | 86 critical* | ND | ND | aINF-α, aIFN-ω (microarray-based assay) | ND | Yes |
| Acosta-Ampudia et al. (2020/Colombia) | Cohort | 19 recovered, 18 severe | 50.7 ± 8.7 | 10 | aINF-α2 (ELISA) | ND | Yes |
| Yee et al. (2021/United States) | Prospective cohort | 103 inpatients and 24 outpatients | 55.2 ± 15.2 | 86 | aIFN-α, aIFN-ω | ND | ND |
| Steels et al. (2022/Belgium) | Prospective cohort | 52 severe* | 65.7 ± 11.8 | 38 | aIFN-α2 (Luminex bead-based assay) | ND | Yes |
| Ziegler et al. (2022/United States) | Prospective cohort | 8 severe and 12 mild or moderate* | ND | ND | aIFN-α2, aIFN-ω (microarray-based platform) | ND | Yes |
| Soltani-Zangbar et al. (2022/Iran) | Cross-sectional | 50 severe and 50 mild* | 46.7 ± 9.0 | 54 | aIFN-α2 (ELISA) | No | Yes |
| Scordio et al. (2022/Italy) | Cohort | 3 critical, 3 moderate, and 2 mild* | 57.5 ± 13.2 | 7 | aINF-α, aIFN-ω, aIFN-β (bioassay) | ND | Yes |
| Busnadiego et al. (2021/Switzerland) | Prospective cohort | 103 critical* | 64.3 ± 11.3 | 80 | aINF-α2, aIFN-ω, aIFN-β (bead-based serological assay) | No | Yes |
| Mathian et al. (2022/France) | Retrospective cohort | 5 | ND | ND | aINF-α2, aIFN-ω, aIFN-β (ELISA) | 5 systemic lupus erythematosus | ND |
| Smith et al. (2022/Multicenter) | Cohort | 126* | ND | ND | aINF-α2, aIFN-ω (ELISA) | ND | Yes |
| Arrestier et al. (2022/France) | Prospective cohort | 925 critical | 61.6 ± 12.4 | 652 | aINF-α2, aIFN-ω, aIFN-β (luciferase reporter assay) | ND | Yes |
| Bodansky et al. (2023/Multicenter) | Cohort | 168 severe and 45 mild | 11.1 ± 8.3 | 107 | aINF-α2 (radioligand binding assay) | ND | Yes |
| Carapito et al. (2022/France) | Prospective cohort | 47 critical and 25 non-critical | 39.6 ± 9.8 | 53 | aIFN-1 (ELISA) | No | Yes |
aIFN: Anti-Interferon, ND: Not determined, ELISA: Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, PCR: Polymerase chain reaction*The study has healthy control group.