Table 3.
Summary of how the morphology of the 3D models was evaluated
| Author (Year) | Model used for comparison | Qualification of evaluator (number) | Type of evaluation |
|---|---|---|---|
| Ben Awadh et al. (2022) [23] | 2D images | NS | NS |
| Cercenelli et al. (2022) [84] | 3DPAM and VR versus 2D images | NS | NS |
| Chandrasekaran et al. (2022) [24] | Plastinated | NS | NS |
| Hammerton et al. (2022) [25] | NS | Anatomy senior (2) and educators (11) | Qualitative |
| Mogali et al. (2022) [27] | Plastinated | NS | NS |
| Saleh et al. (2022) | NS | Authors (5) | Qualitative |
| Tan et al. (2022) [28] | Cadaver and digital | Anatomist (5) and surgeons (3) | Qualitative and quantitative |
| Bertolini et al. (2021) [29] | CT images | Authors (3) | Qualitative and quantitative |
| Krishnasamy et al. (2021) [30] | NS | Surgeons, cardiologists, radiologists, surgical registrars (30) | Survey |
| Mahrous et al. (2021) [31] | Natural tooth, 3D AR and VR | NS | NS |
| O’Brien et al. (2021) [32] | 2D images | NS | NS |
| Ruiz et al. (2021) [33] | NS | Authors (2) | Quantitative |
| Weatherall et al. (2021) [36] | NS | Authors (6) | Qualitative |
| Abducaldir et al. (2020) | 2D diagrams | Expert researchers (30) | Semi-structure interview |
| Chae et al. (2020) [38] | Cadaver (temporal bone), optic scanner and micro-CT images | Authors (8) | Quantitative |
| Chedid et al. (2020) [39] | 2D images | NS | NS |
| Chen et al. (2020) [40] | 2D images | NS | NS |
| Damon et al. (2020) [41] | Same model with and without initial rotation | NS | NS |
| Hojo et al. (2020) [6] | 3D VR and CT images | Surgeons (30) | Likert and Adachi classification |
| Javan et al. (2020) [43] | Serious gaming and VR | NS | NS |
| Low et al. (2020) [44] | NS | Authors (4) | Qualitative |
| Radzi et al. (2020) [45] | Plastinated | NS | NS |
| Tanner et al. (2020) [46] | Cadaver (half-skull) | NS | NS |
| Bartikian et al. (2019) [50] | Same model with different printer | Authors (4) | Qualitative |
| Cai et al. (2019) [51] | Cadaver (knee skeleton) | Experts in human anatomy (2) | Qualitative |
| Low et al. (2019) | 2D images | NS | NS |
| Shen et al. (2019) [54] | Cadaver (skull) (other study) | NS | NS |
| Skrzat et al. (2019) [55] | Cadaver | Authors (4) | Qualitative |
| Ugidos Lozano et al. (2019) [56] | 2D images and cadaver (bones) | NS | NS |
| Yi et al. (2019) [57] | NS | Professor of anatomy (2) and professor of surgery (2) | Likert |
| Zhang et al. (2019) [58] | NS | Experienced teachers (5) | Scores |
| Casciato et al. (2018) [60] | NS | Authors (3) | Quantitative |
| Garas et al. (2018) [61] | Cadaver and plastinated | NS | NS |
| Mogali et al. (2018) [62] | Plastinated | Students (15) | Qualitative |
| Smith et al. (2018) [64] | Cadaver (teacher) and 2D images (students) | Teachers (6) | Survey |
| Smith et al. (2018) [64] | NS | Authors (2) | Qualitative |
| Suzuki et al. (2018) [65] | NS | Authors (9) | Qualitative |
| Ugidos Lozano et al. (2018) | NS | Authors (6) | Qualitative |
| Wu et al. (2018) [66] | Radiographics | NS | NS |
| Zhang et al. (2018) [67] | CT images | Senior doctors (9) | Survey and Likert |
| Chen et al. (2017) [69] | 2D images and cadaver | Students (26) | Likert |
| Favier et al. (2017) [70] | Cadaver | Authors (9) | Quantitative |
| Javan et al. (2017) [71] | NS | Authors (3) | Qualitative and descriptive |
| Kavanagh et al. (2017) | NS | Authors (6) | Quantitative and Likert |
| Legocki et al. (2017) [72] | Commercial model | Authors (3) | Quantitative and qualitative |
| Fasel et al. (2016) [74] | CT images and cadaver (dissection) | Students (12) | Quantitative |
| Khong et al. (2016) | 3 different 3DPAM and 2D images | Anatomy teachers (4) and consultants of surgery (2) | Likert |
| Khong et al. (2016) | 3D VR and 2D images | Anatomy teachers (4) and consultants of surgery (2) | Likert |
| O’Reilly et al. (2016) [78] | Cadaver | NS | NS |
| Shah et al. (2016) [79] | 2D images | NS | NS |
| Adams et al. (2015) [80] | NS | Authors (6) | Satisfaction |
| Cohen et al. (2015) [81] | NS | Authors (2) | Qualitative |
| Hochman et al. (2015) [82] | 3D VR | NS | NS |
| McMenamin et al. (2014) [83] | Plastinated | Authors (4) | Descriptive |
Abbreviations: 3DPAM 3D printed anatomical model, AR Augmented reality, CT Computed tomography, NS Not specified, VR Virtual reality