Table 5.

ELF-EMF's effects on the nervous system.

References	In vitro/In vivo	Intervention description	Experiment object	Main effect/Possible cause/ Mechanism
Bonmassar et al. (2012)	In vitro	Sub-millimeter magnetic coils (FEM predicted the intensity as approximately 0.02 T, 1 Hz)	Ganglion cells from rabbit retina	Sub-millimeter magnetic coils were able to activate neuronal tissue.
Cichoń et al. (2017)	In vivo	7 mT at 40 Hz for 15 min/day for 4 weeks	Brain stroke patients	Oxidative stress can be modulated by EMF.
Cichoń et al. (2018)	In vivo	7 mT at 40 Hz for 15 min/day for 4 weeks	Brain stroke patients	Exposure to ELF-EMF led to a significant elevation in the levels of growth factors and cytokines associated with neuroplasticity and facilitated a notable improvement in functional recovery.
Gao et al. (2021)	In vivo	ELF-EMF (50 Hz, 1 mT) for 2 h daily on 28 successive days	Rat	Hippocampal neurogenesis was enhanced by the ELF-EMF with cerebral ischemia, and the effects may probably be generated through the upregulation of the Notch signaling pathway.
Jeong et al. (2022)	In vivo	Micro-coil stimulation	Rat vagus nerve	This way of stimulation was an effective alternative to VNS with fewer heart-related side effects.
Lee and Fried (2015)	In vitro	0.5-mm diameter coils (250–1000 Hz)	Subthalamic nucleus (STN) neurons from C57BL/6 mouse brain slice	Sub-millimeter magnetic coils were able to suppress the activation of neuronal tissue.
Lee and Fried (2017)	In vitro	Micro-coil stimulation	Layer V pyramidal neurons (PNs)	The coils produced asymmetric fields and activated the corresponding focal region.
Ma et al. (2016)	In vivo and in vitro	1 mT, 50 Hz ELF-EMF	Adult mice	An enhancement of hippocampal neurogenesis in adult mice was detected, and the proliferation of embryonic neural stem cells (eNSCs) was enhanced.
Moya-Gómez et al. (2023)	In vivo	13.5 mT/60 Hz EMF	Ischemia/reperfusion model on Mongolian gerbils (6-month-old males)	ELF-EMF enhanced the neurological assessment and behavioral outcomes, exhibited a positive impact on neuronal viability, and contributed to a reduction in glial reactivity within the hippocampus.
Oda and Koike (2004)	In vitro	ELF-EMF of 300 mT at 50 Hz for 5 days	Cerebellar granule neurons (CGNs) of postnatal rats	CGNs were saved from apoptosis.
Park et al. (2013)	In vivo	Micro-coil stimulation	Central nervous systems of hamsters	Inferior colliculus neurons in the dorsal cochlear nucleus were activated.
Rezaei-Tavirani et al. (2018)	In vivo	50 Hz ELF-EMF at 0.5 and 1 mT for 2 and 4 weeks	Male rat	This study determined that ELF-EMF led to the change in protein expression related to the cytoskeleton in the rat hippocampus that contributes to major processes in brain damage.
Zheng et al. (2021)	In vivo	15 Hz/2 mT ELF-EMF	LTP at the Schaffer collateral-CA1 (SC-CA1) synapses in Sprague–Dawley rats	A consistent decrease in LTP was detected across various waveforms which could be possibly induced by the closure of some calcium channels in the membrane.