Table 3.

Single events in which vocal utterances were emitted, ordered by frequency of occurrence

Event type	Single events	Code	N total utterances	Description	Studies that reported vocalizations during the specified event
Activity	Feeda	FE	1943	Arrive at a feeding area, eat, crack nuts or search for or collect fruits, tree leaves, nuts, meat, honey, insects, etc.	Kalan and Boesch; Fedurek and Slocombe32,33
	Travela	TR	1085	Locomotion. Excludes walking within a feeding site, traveling during patrols or intergroup encounters. If the caller is resting and right after the call starts traveling, the activity is coded as travel	Fedurek et al.; Crockford et al.34,35
	Resta	RE	593	Sit or lie down on the ground, or tree branch, without food.	Crockford et al.35
Social interaction	Approacha	AP	2074	Move toward another individual or receive an approach within the party. Includes submissive greetings. “Approach” followed by “give aggression” is coded only as “give aggression”	Fedurek et al.; Luef and Pika36,37
	Playa	PL	924	Play with another individual. Includes tickling, chasing, wrestling, etc. Solo play is not included	Luef and Pika; Davila-Ross et al.37,38
	Receive aggressiona	RA	745	Receive aggression with or without body contact. Includes attack, bite, displace, display, chase away, hit, slap, threaten, etc.	Fedurek et al.; Slocombe and Zuberbühler 36,39
	Affiliation	AF	676	Give or receive an affiliative gesture. Includes hug, arm reach, kiss, touch genitals, etc (but not groom).	van Lawick-Goodall40
	Grooma	GR	353	Groom or being groomed by another individual. Solo grooming is not included	Fedurek et al.; Watts41,42
	Beg	BE	482	Request food or tools from the possessor, or request to be breastfed or carried by the mother	Levréro and Mathevon43
	Give aggression	GA	220	Give aggression with or without body contact. Includes attack, bite, displace, display, chase away, hit, slap, threaten, etc.	Fedurek et al.; Slocombe and Zuberbühler36,44
	Food share	SH	16	Receive or give food from/to another individual or right after the share of it
	Copulatea	CO	14	Copulate with another individual	Nishida; Townsend et al.45,46
	Solicit copulation	SC	10	Show a gesture and posture directed to an estrous female by a male or vice versa, which normally leads to copulation	Nishida45
Change in the environment	Distressa	DI	1026	Show signs of distress (e.g., rapid searching behavior, retreat, temper tantrum) to an event external or related to self, such as startle to external events, mother moves away, food exclusion, isolation, being groomed roughly	Levréro and Mathevon; Dezecache et al.43,47
	Fusion	FU	735	Join a party after at least 30 min of absence, or be joined by one or several others after 30 min of absence.	Fedurek et al.34
	Inter-party communication	IP	571	Reply to a chimpanzee calling from outside the party, within 30 s48 after hearing the call. Includes chorusing with other individuals of the party if it is in reply to an outside party call	Fedurek et al.; Mitani and Nishida34,49
	Nest time	NS	244	Call given while in either a day or night nest, while on the ground but looking at individuals already in the nests, or in the evening, while resting or traveling before the nest, while looking up into the trees	Boesch and Crockford50
	Animal encountera	EN	204	Look at a threat or signs of threat (snake, leopard, leopard scat, big animal, dead animal, etc.) or hear alarm calls (from conspecifics or other species)	Crockford et al.; Girard-Buttoz et al.; Dezecache et al.24,25,35,51
	Bystander to aggression	BA	149	Call given as a bystander to aggression between other individuals.
	Outside party noise	OP	94	Call immediately after hearing a noise beyond visibility (within 30 s),48 due to a potential threat (aeroplane noise, branches moving due to unseen individual, either human, animal or another chimpanzee, or due to falling trees, weather, such as thunder, lighting, start raining, or strong wind; etc.).	Crockford et al.24,35
	Intergroup encounter	IG	79	Visual or vocal encounter with a neighboring group, looking in the direction of the neighbor group, even if the caller at the moment is resting or running	Herbinger et al.52
	Hunta	HU	20	Stalking, pursuing, capturing, and killing monkeys. Once eating starts, becomes “feed” context	Mitani and Watts; Crockford and Boesch53,54
	Bystander to copulation	BC	15	Look and/or push in between the mating pair (“Interfere copulation” by Nishida). Mostly by immature individuals and associated with aggression or affiliation	Nishida45
	Human directed	HD	15	Look at the observer, mostly in reaction to unexpected, sudden movements from the human observer. A behavior only observed in immature individuals	Hopkins et al.55

^aEvents with highly context-specific vocalizations previously reported.