Table 1. Baseline Characteristics of World Health Organization–Defined (Presumed) Sudden Cardiac Deaths in Unhoused Individuals Compared With Housed Individuals in San Francisco County, 2011-2018.
| Characteristic | Individuals, No. (%) | P value | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Unhoused (n = 151) | Housed (n = 717) | ||
| Age, mean (SD), y | 56.7 (0.8) | 61.0 (0.5) | <.001 |
| Sex | |||
| Female | 19 (12.6) | 218 (30.4) | <.001 |
| Male | 132 (87.4) | 499 (69.6) | |
| Race and ethnicity | |||
| Asian | 3 (2.0) | 163 (22.7) | <.001 |
| Black | 39 (25.8) | 108 (15.1) | .001 |
| Hispanic | 15 (9.9) | 45 (6.3) | .11 |
| White | 90 (59.6) | 380 (53.0) | .14 |
| Othera | 4 (2.7) | 21 (2.9) | .85 |
| Witnessed death | 27 (18.0) | 184 (25.7) | .04 |
| Initial rhythm | |||
| Asystole | 124 (82.1) | 551 (76.8) | .16 |
| PEA | 6 (4.0) | 21 (2.9) | .50 |
| VT/VF | 5 (3.3) | 61 (8.5) | .03 |
| Other | 5 (3.3) | 19 (2.6) | .65 |
| Missing | 11 (7.3) | 65 (9.1) | 48 |
| Time to EMS arrival, mean (SD), min | 5.6 (0.4) | 5.6 (0.2) | .99 |
| Prior ICD implantation | 0 | 7 (1.0) | .22 |
| Prior medical care | 130 (86.1) | 597 (83.3) | .39 |
| Premortem diagnoses | |||
| Hypertension | 68 (45.0) | 372 (51.9) | .13 |
| Diabetes | 27 (17.9) | 154 (21.5) | .32 |
| Hyperlipidemia | 19 (12.6) | 214 (30.0) | <.001 |
| Coronary artery disease | 12 (8.0) | 125 (17.4) | .004 |
| Heart failure/cardiomyopathy | 17 (11.3) | 93 (13.0) | .57 |
| Atrial fibrillation | 7 (4.6) | 62 (8.7) | .10 |
| Chronic kidney disease | 9 (6.0) | 70 (9.8) | .14 |
| Cerebrovascular accident | 6 (4.0) | 38 (5.3) | .50 |
| Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease | 27 (17.9) | 66 (9.2) | .002 |
| Psychiatric diagnosis | |||
| Schizophrenia | 23 (15.2) | 36 (5.0) | <.001 |
| Depression | 34 (22.5) | 105 (14.7) | .02 |
| Anxiety | 10 (6.6) | 44 (6.1) | .82 |
| Bipolar disorder | 11 (7.3) | 19 (2.6) | .01 |
| Chronic hepatitis C infection | 34 (22.5) | 28 (3.9) | <.001 |
| HIV/AIDS | 17 (11.3) | 40 (5.6) | .01 |
| Tobacco use | 72 (47.7) | 252 (35.2) | .004 |
| Excess alcohol use | 83 (55.0) | 137 (19.1) | <.001 |
| Illicit drug use | 62 (41.1) | 87 (12.1) | <.001 |
| Medications | |||
| Aspirin | 32 (21.2) | 176 (24.6) | .38 |
| Statin | 20 (13.3) | 194 (27.1) | <.001 |
| ACEI | 30 (19.9) | 176 (24.6) | .22 |
| ARB | 4 (2.7) | 55 (7.7) | .03 |
| β-Blocker | 31 (20.5) | 192 (26.8) | .11 |
| Calcium channel blocker | 15 (9.9) | 105 (14.6) | .13 |
| Antiarrhythmic | 12 (8.0) | 49 (6.8) | .63 |
| Diuretic | 29 (19.2) | 173 (24.1) | .19 |
| Nitrate | 7 (4.6) | 55 (7.7) | .19 |
| SSRI | 24 (15.9) | 57 (8.0) | .002 |
| Antipsychotic | 23 (15.2) | 53 (7.4) | .002 |
| Opioid | 38 (25.2) | 107 (14.9) | .002 |
Abbreviations: ACEI, angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor; ARB, angiotensin receptor blocker; EMS, emergency medical services; ICD, implantable cardioverter-defibrillator; PEA, pulseless electrical activity; SSRI, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor; VT/VF, ventricular tachycardia/ventricular fibrillation.
a
Per entry of data collection in the Postmortem Systematic Investigation of Sudden Cardiac Death study, if individuals did not meet other race and ethnicity categories (ie, Asian, Black, Hispanic, or White), they were classified as other.