TABLE 1.
Effects of exercise on human circadian rhythm.
| Light | Exercise protocol | Result | Note | References | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Type | Mode | Intensity | ||||
| Normal (<10 lux during saliva sampling) | Treadmill | 5 d; 1 time/d; 30 min Ex | 70% VO2peak | Morning exercise: DLMO←(0.49 ± 0.25 h,0.54 ± 0.29 h) in both earlier and later chronotypes | Exercise was performed in the morning (10 h after DLMO) or evening (20 h after DLMO) | Thomas et al. (2020) |
| Evening exercise: DLMO→(0.41 ± 0.29 h) in earlier chronotypes, DLMO←(0.46 ± 0.25 h) in later chronotypes | ||||||
| Normal | Resistance training | 60 d; 3 times/wk; Lumbar and lower limb muscle group training | 70%–80% of maximum muscle strength | C: Temperature←(0.45 ± 0.40 h) | Resistance training was performed at one of four 45-min time slots between 10 a.m. and 1 p.m | Mendt et al. (2021) |
| Dim, <10 lux | Cycle ergometer | 1 d; 1 time/d; 4 cycles (15 min Ex + 15 min Re) | HR: 140/min | CT8: Mpeak→(0.35 ± 0.13 h) | Miyazaki et al. (2021) | |
| CT17: Monset→(0.45 ± 0.15 h); Mpeak→(0.45 ± 0.12 h); Moffset→(0.62 ± 0.21 h) | ||||||
| Dim, <10 lux | Cycle ergometer | 4 d; 1 time/d; 10 min Wa +45 min Ex + 10 min Re + 45 min Ex + 10 min Co | 65%–75% HRmax | C: Monset→(1.1 ± 0.7 h); Mpeak→(0.8 ± 0.4 h) | Yamanaka et al. (2015) | |
| CT3: Monset→(1.2 ± 1.0 h); Mpeak→(1.0 ± 0.3 h) | ||||||
| CT10: Monset→(1.3 ± 0.9 h); Mpeak→(1.0 ± 0.5 h); Moffset→(1.0 ± 0.8 h) | ||||||
| Dim, <100 lux | Arm and leg exerciser | 1 d; 1 time/d; LE: 5 cycles (15 min Ex1 + 15 min Ex2 + 6 min Re); HE: 10 min Wa +40 min Ex + 10 min Co | LE: 60% VO2max + 40% VO2max | LE: TSHonset→(1.30 ± 0.17 h); Monset→(1.05 ± 0.13 h) | LE and HE were performed at CT16 and CT17 respectively | Buxton et al. (1997) |
| HE: 75% VO2max | HE: TSHonset→(1.58 ± 0.32 h); Monset→(0.92 ± 0.25 h) | |||||
| Dim, 42 ± 19 lux | Stairclimber | 1 d; 1 time/d; 10 min Wa +40 min Ex + 10min Co | 75% VO2max | CT1.5: Monset→(0.38 ± 0.23 h) | Buxton et al. (2003) | |
| CT5: Monset→(0.72 ± 0.20 h) | ||||||
| CT10.5: Monset←(0.50 ± 0.25 h) | ||||||
| CT16.5: Monset→(0.42 ± 0.23 h) | ||||||
| Dim, <50 lux (Wake period); <0.5lux (Sleep period) | Treadmill | 3 d; 1 time/d; 60 min Ex | 65%–75% HRR | 1:00: aMT6s Acropgase→ | Each participant followed an ultrashort sleep-wake cycle (60 min wake/30 min sleep) for up to 5½ days and exercised at one of eight counterbalanced times of day or night | Youngstedt et al. (2019) |
| 16:00: aMT6s Acropgase← | ||||||
| 7:00,13:00 and 16:00: aMT6s Onset← | ||||||
| 19:00 and 22:00: aMT6s Onset→ | ||||||
| Dim, <10 lux | Cycle- and rowing-type ergometers | 12 d; 2 times/d, 4 cycles (15 min Ex + 15 min Re) | HR: 140/min | E: Mpeak←(1.60 ± 0.42 h) | A forced sleep-wake schedule with a period of 23 h and 40 min (8-h rest and 15 h 40-min wake periods) was imposed for 12 cycles. Exercise was performed at CT3 and CT7 | Miyazaki et al. (2021) |
| Dim, <10 lux | Cycle ergometer | 4 d, 2 times/d, 4 cycles (15 min Ex + 15 min Re) | 65%–75% HRmax | C&E: Mpeak→ after shift schedule; Mpeak→ in C and recovered in E after free-run | The sleep schedule was phase-advanced by 8 h for 4 days, which was followed by a free-run session for 6 days, and exercise was performed at CT3 and CT7 | Yamanaka et al. (2010) |
| Two groups | Cycle ergometer | 3 d, 1 time/d, 6 cycles (Ex 15 min/h) | 50%–60% HRmax | Dim light: Temperature minimum →(7.9 ± 1.0 h, 7.7 ± 2.7 h) in C and CT7 | The sleep schedule was phase-delayed by 9 h for 8 days | Baehr et al. (1999) |
| 1. Dim, <500 lux | Bright light: Temperature minimum →(4.8 ± 12.9 h, 5.7 ± 3.2 h) in C and CT7 | |||||
| 2.During exercise, 40 min (5,000 lux) + 20 min (<500lux) | ||||||
| Dim, <5 lux | Cycle ergometer | 7 d, 3 times/d, 45 min Ex | 65%–75% HRmax | C: Monset→(1.67 ± 0.45 h); Moffset→(1.51 ± 0.55 h) | The sleep schedule was phase-delayed by 9 h for 7 days. Exercise was performed at CT8.75, CT10.50 and CT12.25 | Barger et al. (2004) |
| E: Monset→(3.17 ± 0.49 h); Moffset→(3.51 ± 0.55 h) | ||||||
| Bright, >5,000 lux | Cycle ergometer | 4 d, 2times/d, 4 cycles (15 min Ex + 15 min Re) | 65%–75% HRmax | C: Sleep onset←(4.3 ± 3.8 h) after shift schedule; Sleep onset→(3.6 ± 3.4 h) in the free-run session | The sleep schedule was phase-advanced by 8 h for 4 days, which was followed by a free-run session for 6 days, and exercise was performed at CT3 and CT7 | Yamanaka et al. (2014) |
| E: Sleep onset←(6.1 ± 1.5 h) and Mpeak←(6.9 ± 2.6 h) after shift schedule; Sleep onset did not significantly change in the free-run session | ||||||
C, control group; E, exercise group; LE, low-intensity exercise; HE, high-intensity exercise; CT0, time of awakening (e.g., CT3 indicates exercise starting 3 h after waking up); Wa, warm up; Ex, exercise; Re, rest; Co, cool down; VO2peak, maximum oxygen uptake; HR, heart rate; HRR, heart rate reserve; DLMO, dim light melatonin onset; Monset, Melatonin onset; Mpeak, Melatonin peak; Moffset, Melatonin offset; aMT6s, 6- sulphatoxymelatonin (the major metabolite of melatonin); Arrows indicate significant phase advance (←) and delay (→).