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. 2023 Oct 25;23:250. doi: 10.1186/s12935-023-03099-y

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© The Author(s) 2023

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

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Fig. 1 — Cancer stem cell (CSC) features. CSCs are identified and assessed as cancer stemness based on five distinct criteria. Self-renewing CSCs may create a tumorsphere. A tumor may be entirely formed by a few CSCs. The recipient’s CSCs may be transferred to the following recipient. Chemoresistance to chemotherapy and tumor recurrence is caused by CSCs. On the cell membrane, CSCs exhibit a variety of distinct stem markers [33]