Table 3.
Metabolites of active ingredients in fruits in the gut and associated microorganisms.
| Active Ingredients | Category | Representative Compound | Gut Microbes Involved in Metabolism | Metabolite Transformation | Bioavailability | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Polysaccharide | Malus pumila polysaccharide | Starch | Bifidobacteria adolescentis, Ruminococcus bromii | SCFAs (mainly butyrate) | / | [95] |
| Pectin | Bacteroides, Lactobacillus | SCFAs (mainly acetic acid, propionic acid, butyrate) | / | [96,97] | ||
| Oligosaccharide | Fructooligosaccharide | / | Lactobacillus, Clostridium | SCFAs, carbon dioxide, methane, hydrogen | 60% | [98,99] |
| Polyphenol | Ellagitannins | Sanguiin H6 | Coriobacterium, Lactobacillus | Urolithins | / | [100,101] |
| Agrimoniin | Eggerthellaceae, Bacillus gordonae sp. | Urolithins | / | [102,103] | ||
| Phenolic acid | Gallic acid | Proteobacteria, Firmicutes | Pyrogallic acid | / | [104] | |
| Chlorogenic acid | Bifidobacterium, Bacillus | Coumaric acid, benzoic acid, phenylpropionic acid | 30% | [105] | ||
| Flavonoid | Flavonol | Quercetin | Streptococcus lutei, Lactobacillus acidophilus, Clostridium, Bacteroides fragilis, Clostridium | Quercetin 3-glucoside, quercetin 7-glucoside | 36–53% | [106,107] |
| Rutin | Bacteroides, Clostridium, Bacillus | 3, 4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid, rapesin, quercetin-3-O-glucoside, phloroglucinol | 22% | [108] | ||
| Flavanone | Hesperetin | Bacteroides, Clostridium, Bifidobacterium | 7-O-glucuronic acid, hesperidin-7-O-hesperidin sulfate | / | [109,110] |