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. 2023 Oct 9;12(10):1320. doi: 10.3390/biology12101320

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© 2023 by the authors.

Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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Interaction between the immune system, osteoclasts, and osteoblasts in the pathogenesis of bone involvement in spondyloarthritis. MSC, mesenchymal stromal cells; ILC, innate lymphoid cells; hPBMCs, human peripheral blood mononuclear cells; HLA-B27, human leukocyte antigen-B27; RANKL, receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa-Β ligand; OPG, osteoprotegerin; DKK1, Dickkopf-related protein 1; TNFα, tumor necrosis factor-alpha; TNFR1-2, tumor necrosis factor receptor 1-2; IL-1, interleukin-1; IL-6, interleukin-6; IL-17A, interleukin-17A; IL-22, interleukin-22; IL-23, interleukin-23.